Table 1 Details of the markets, geographical locations of trade, and regulations applied to the trade in the six focal taxa used in the study

Caterpillar fungus (primarily Ophiocordyceps sinensis and Cordyceps militaris)

Whole organism

Traditional medicine; Food

Nepal, Bhutan, China, India

Global, particularly in Asia

Not CITES listed. Several local and national restrictions on harvesting.

Pangolin (Manidae family)

Scales; meat

Traditional medicine (scales); food (meat)

Several countries in Africa and Asia

Primarily China and Southeast Asia. Also, sub-Saharan Africa

All listed in CITES. App I in 2017. Harvesting and trade bans in virtually all range states.

Horseshoe crab (Limulidae family)

Blood; whole organism

Biomedicine (blood); fishing bait

Primarily USA

Global (blood), USA (bait)

Not CITES listed. Several local and national restrictions on harvesting.

Sturgeon (Acipenseridae family)

Eggs; meat

Food

Primarily Caspian and Black Seas

Global, particularly Europe and USA.

All listed in CITES App. II in 1998, one species in App. I in 1975. National and regional restrictions on fishing.

Bears (primarily Ursus thibetanus and U. arctos)

Bile

Traditional medicine

Southeast and East Asia.

China and Southeast Asia

U. thibetanus listed in CITES App. I in 1979. Some U. arctos populations listed in App. I, and all other species in App. II in 1992. Legal bile farming in different Asian countries between 1980 and present. National restrictions on harvest and trade in several countries.

Rhinoceros (Rhinocerotidae family)

Horn

Traditional medicine

Several countries in Africa and Asia

China and Southeast Asia

All listed in CITES App I in 1975, some populations in App II. National restrictions on trade. Several proposals to legalise domestic markets.