Fig. 3: Lag association pattern between mothers’ preconceptional and prenatal ENSO (up to 12 months before delivery) and child survival from contour plots.

The X-axis indicates the intensity of each ENSO measure, and Y-axis indicates lags of 0–12 months. The color gradient represents the hazard ratio (HR). ENSO El Niño Southern Oscillation, MEI multivariate El Niño index, ESPI ENSO precipitation index, ONI oceanic Niño index.