Fig. 1: Bacterial growth and resistance evolution under gentamicin treatment.

a Growth curve of E. coli treated with 6 μg/ml gentamicin. The dashed line indicates the time of antibiotic addition. Three more biological replicates are shown in Supplementary Fig. 1c. b Lethality of gentamicin quantified by the time-kill curve. The viable bacteria counts are indicated as colony-forming units (CFUs). c Schematic of drug susceptibility assay. Bacterial isolates were cultured in a medium containing gentamicin of different concentrations. For each concentration, area under the growth curve (AUC, integration of the growth curve from 0 to 20 h, see “Methods” section) was quantified and indexed as “AUC_x” (x = 0, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 8, corresponding to gentamicin concentration in μg/ml). d Drug susceptibility of bacterial isolates recovered during gentamicin treatment. The heatmaps show AUCs of the isolates under 6 different gentamicin concentrations (as indicated in c). The time points labeled below the heatmaps and on the axis indicate the duration of gentamicin treatment before the antibiotic was washed out and the clones were isolated (by plating the culture on antibiotic-free agar plates). The isolates are categorized into wild type, suspected mutant (altered AUC with or without gentamicin) including resistant (increased AUC under any concentration of gentamicin); these categories are highlighted by colors white, gray, and black respectively above the heatmaps. Mutations identified by resequencing from eight selected isolates are listed above. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.