Fig. 4: K-ion full cell simulations.

Full-cell Doyle-Fuller-Newman (DFN) simulations of two K-ion cells with different electrolytes in a cell based on the commercial LG M50 cylindrical cell format. The state-of-the-art modelled K-ion cell is graphite (G) ∣∣ \({{{{\rm{K}}}}}_{2}{{{\rm{Mn}}}}[{{{\rm{Fe}}}}{({{{\rm{CN}}}})}_{6}]\) (KMF) with 2 m KFSI TEP electrolyte (denoted as TEP). The other cell is a hypothetical electrolyte case using the characterised electrolyte properties of the 2 m KFSI:DME¹⁵ to simulate K-ion performance with an equivalent electrolyte (DMEe). The cell energy is 7.3 Wh. NP ratios were kept constant at 1.1 with constant electrode porosities, and properties for both chemistries. Modelled using PyBaMM⁶⁷ at 20 °C. (1 C = 1.91 mA cm⁻² for both). a Schematic of simulated K-ion cell. b Energy density and specific energy of the K-ion chemistry at the stack level using the stack-level model developed previously^5,70. c Simulated galvanostatic profiles for the K-ion cells. d Accessible capacities at increasing C-rate. e Overpotential components during a 5 C charge for the TEP electrolyte. f Overpotential components during a 5 C charge for the DMEe electrolyte.