Fig. 3: Load-free temperature span of the roller-driven eC refrigerator.

a evolution of temperature span at 0.17 Hz using baseline commercial-grade NiTi ribbons (0.9 s for loading/unloading and 2 s for heat transfer). b evolution of temperature span at 0.17 Hz using TiNiCu ribbons. c Comparison of temperature span between NiTi and TiNiCu ribbons at 0.17 Hz. d frequency-dependent temperature span using baseline commercial-grade NiTi ribbons. e simulated temperature span with different NiTi mass ratios at 0.17 Hz. Mass ratio is the mass between SMA#2 (high-temperature stage) and SMA#1 (low-temperature stage). Error bars represent the measurement uncertainty of temperature span (see uncertainty analysis section in Supplementary Information).