Fig. 3: Design and properties of the biphasic composite muscle.

a (i) A schematic illustration depicting the chemical composition of the biphasic composite and (ii) photographs showing the high deformability of the composite. b (i, ii) 3D Nano-CT images of the (i) unstretched and (ii) stretched biphasic composite; (iii, iv) SEM images of the (iii) unstretched and (iv) stretched biphasic composite; and (v, vi) SEM images showing the enlarged view of the (v) hydrophobic and (vi) hydrophilic regions of the biphasic composite. c Elongation at break of the three types of biphasic composites at 25 °C and 70 °C. d Elastic moduli and stiffness switching ratio of the three types of biphasic composites at 25 °C and 70 °C. e Energy dissipation of the three types of composites under strains from 100% to 700% at 70 °C. f Strain recovery of the three types of biphasic composite under strain from 100% to 700% at 70 °C. g Stress-strain curves of the biphasic composite (DMAA-Alg/Al³⁺) during 1000 cyclic loading–unloading tests at 70 °C. Error bars in each graph represent standard deviation, n = 5 independent samples.