Fig. 6: Illustrative scenario comparing current and future BEV assembly labor productivity.

The data compares BEV labor intensity data from Alameda against baseline ICEV data from the U.S. average (Supplementary Fig. 1). Year 0 corresponds to 2010, when Tesla began to retool the factory in Alameda to begin producing the Model S. Baseline WPV is projected based on data from year 5. For the BEV WPV trend, solid markers indicate data points used for the projection. The projected steady-state value assumes that 30% lower labor intensity versus the baseline is eventually realized. Years 0–5: higher labor intensity during the initial period of factory production ramp-up. Years 5–10: gradual decrease in labor intensity as production volume increases. Beyond 15 years: whether BEV labor intensity will reach parity with ICEV labor intensity will depend on various techno-economic factors, including the level of investment in research and development (R&D), vehicle complexity, production volume, robotic automation, and process efficiency. See “Methods”: Labor intensity projections for details. ICEV: internal combustion engine vehicle. BEV: battery electric vehicle. WPV: workers per 1000 vehicles per annum (labor intensity). Source data are provided as a Source Data file.