Fig. 1: Mechanisms underlying the formation of phase interface layers through concentration polarization.

a Schematic representation of the concentration polarization-induced phase interface layer formation. b The Raman and c SAXS peaks representing Zn2+ solvation configurations and aggregation degree of colloidal particles at different salt concentrations. d In-situ Raman spectra at the electrode/electrolyte interface during Zn depletion. e Frequency change and f corresponding mass change in EQCM of CP test.