Fig. 1: Electrochemical behaviors under different Li⁺ ion concentrations.

Galvanostatic discharge curves with 0.05–2 M electrolytes using (a) disordered electrodes at 0.1 mA cm⁻² and (b) visualized electrodes at 300 mA g⁻¹. c The trend of discharge capacity with Li⁺ ion concentration. Initial voltage plateau using (d) disordered electrodes and (e) visualized electrodes. f Trend of initial voltage plateau with Li⁺ ion concentration. EIS results using (g) disordered electrodes at a fixed capacity of 1.5 mAh cm⁻² and (h) visualized electrodes at a fixed capacity of 4000 mAh g⁻¹. i Comparison of the net R_s and net R_ct, where net R is defined as R_discharged - R_pristine.