Fig. 2: Li₂O₂ nucleation-growth theory and the relationship between product morphology and overpotential.

a–d The evolution of Li₂O₂ morphologies at full discharge with different Li⁺ ion concentrations. The scale bars of the large image are 300 nm, while that of the small image are 1 μm. e Scheme of adsorption/distribution of O₂ and LiO₂ at the solid-liquid interface in electrolytes with different concentrations. f The mechanism of Li⁺ ion concentration on initial voltage plateau and nucleation. g Scheme of voltage characteristics and control factors at early and later stages. The growth evolution of (h) Li₂O₂ film with low cLi⁺ and (i) particle with high cLi⁺ simulated by the field phase method. The relationship between coverage of Li₂O₂ on the electrode surface and discharge voltage with (j) low cLi⁺ and (k) high cLi⁺.