Fig. 2: Land-use change and associated estimated CO2 and CH4 emissions for peat swamp forests (PSFs) and mangroves in Southeast Asian countries.

a, b The proportion of land-use (in hectares) replacing PSFs and mangroves in Southeast Asia between 2001 and 2022. c, d Annual calculated CO2 emissions according to source (i.e., deforestation of mangroves, mangrove soil excavation, deforestation of PSFs, peat drainage, peat decomposition, and fires in peat) and country between 2001 and 2022. Error bars for (b) indicate 95% confidence interval uncertainty estimated by combining activity data and emission factors (see ‘Methods’’ for information on uncertainty analysis). Source data are provided as a Source Data file.