Fig. 2: Properties of V-NFC-CS separator and electrochemical performance of Zn||Zn cells.

a Illustration of fast ionic transport path within V-NFC-CS separator. b Contact angle and ionic conductivity of V-NFC-CS and NFC-CS separators (the error bars represent the standard deviation calculated from five in-parallel tests). c CA curve of the Zn||Zn cell with V-NFC-CS separator and corresponding Nyquist plots to determine tZn2+. d Arrhenius curves and calculated Ea values with the use of two different separators. e Overpotential values with respect to specific current and corresponding i0 values and f GCD profiles at 5 mA cm−2 and 25 mAh cm−2 of Zn||Zn cells when using two different separators. g Current-dependent Sand’s capacity with the use of V-NFC-CS separator. h GCD profiles of Zn||Zn cells with two different separators at 10 mA cm−2 and 2 mAh cm−2.