Fig. 4: AFM characteristics of membrane bending.

a Time lapse topographies showing the process of RCD-1-induced membrane bending, with data collected by incubation of 250 nM RCD-1-1 and 250 nM RCD-1-2 on DOPC: DOPS = 6: 4. The blue, white and green arrowheads indicate the membrane bending initiated from pores of arc, ring and end-to-end connected oligomers. The percentage of bent membrane areas shows 5.8%, 7.4%, 10.0%, 26.5%, 36.9%, and 99.4% at times of 10, 17, 32, 54, 61 and 85 min, respectively (experimental repeats, n = 5). b Time lapse topographies showing that some of the bent areas (partial highlighted by white circular pattern) reverting to their original SLB state upon removing the monomers at 10 min. The percentage of bent membrane areas shows 91.0%, 87.1%, 82.6%, and 78.8% at times of 10, 125, 173 and 240 min, respectively (experimental repeats, n = 3). c New RCD-1 ring structures formed at the edges of the bent membranes upon removing the monomers at 30 min (experimental repeats, n = 5).