Fig. 1: Illustration of the overall study design.

a Schematic plot for developing and evaluating HiPaS. HiPaS is designed for whole pulmonary artery-vein segmentation on both non-contrast CT and CTPA. Initially, HiPaS was pretrained using 17,817 public CT volumes and subsequently trained on 875 CT volumes, comprising 315 CTPA and 560 non-contrast CT. We utilized 198 external CT volumes for model testing. HiPaS was finally deployed on a clinical cohort of 11,784 patients for anatomical studies. b Overall framework of artery-vein segmentation with HiPaS. The HiPaS framework begins with the Inter-and-Intra Slice Super-Resolution (I2SR) module, which resamples CT scans into a normalized space. Following this, the Saliency-Transmission Segmentation (STS) module is used to achieve precise artery-vein segmentation. c General structures of the I2SR module and the STS module. d Data annotation process. We employed a human-in-the-loop strategy for data annotation. Initially, annotations were created for CTPA. HiPaS was trained on these annotations and then deployed on non-contrast CT to generate initial artery-vein segmentation results. Radiologists then reviewed and revised these results to obtain the final segmentation annotations. e Datasets for pulmonary anatomical study. We collected 11,784 CT volumes from six different cities in China as a multi-center study. Some of the designs in the figure use materials from Freepik https://www.Freepik.com.