Fig. 4: QCE-VWM vs 17 alternative models.

This graph illustrates the cost associated with eliminating a single mechanism (or aspect) of the QCE-VWM model, or that of applying different methods (see text and Supplementary Discussion 2 for details). These costs are gauged by the effect sizes of t-tests in 17 comparisons between QCE-VWM and 17 alternative models. These effect sizes are measured as Cohen’s d value (green bars), as well as the CAD values (complexity-adjusted d, see Supplementary Methods 5.1, purple bars), and they are generally quite large. Moreover, cross-validation is performed, and the Cohen’s d value for the validation set (blue bars) is nearly as large as that for the training set (red bars), suggesting that these effects are generalizable.