Fig. 6: Bone tissue strain analysis and compressive properties of bone implants.

a 3D finite element model (FEM) of the 6-mm ulnar defect with implantation of CS or TMS and augmented with a plate. b FEM analysis of maximum principal strains within the soft callus tissue and scaffolds under different body weight (BW) loading in the ROI. c FEM maximum principal strain values under varying load conditions with randomly selected grids, n = 100, whiskers extend to the 10–90% values, box represents the 25th to 75th percentiles, and centre represents mean value. d FEM maximum principal strain values of different bone tissues under 1 BW with randomly selected grids, n = 25, whiskers extend to the 10-90% values, box represents the 25th to 75th percentiles and centre represents mean value. e Compressive properties of different metamaterials and bone implants. The plot is setup with strength normalized by the effective modulus vs. the effective modulus. The unattainable limit for one-stage metamaterial was plotted according to reference⁴⁰. Commercial bulk metals for bone implants, including Ti alloys⁴¹, CoCr alloys⁴², and biodegradable Zn alloys⁴³ are presented in solid squares. Bone scaffolds, including Ti6Al4V²⁰, Ti⁴⁴, biodegradable Zn¹¹ and polyetheretherketone (PEEK)⁴⁵ are labeled by circles with half-down interiors. Metamaterials, including metal⁴⁶, polymer⁴⁷, ceramics⁴⁸, and carbon⁴⁹ are labeled by diamonds with half-up interior.