Fig. 2: Schematic diagram of the PtC/Ni/c-Si photocathode and its performance.

a Fabrication scheme of the PtC/Ni/c-Si photocathode. b Absorption spectra of the IBC cell depending on the structure. c LSV curves of the PtC/Ni/c-Si photocathode. d Chronoamperometry measurement of the PtC/Ni/c-Si photocathode at 0.26 V vs. RHE. Changes in the thermal images of the encapsulated c-Si IBC cell in the atmosphere (e) and the PtC/Ni/c-Si photocathode in the electrolyte (f) under continuous light illumination. g Temperature profile of the encapsulated c-Si IBC cell in the atmosphere and the PtC/Ni/c-Si photocathode in the electrolyte. h Temperature-dependent current density‒voltage curves of the encapsulated c-Si IBC cell. i Temperature-dependent LSV curve of the PtC/Ni/c-Si photocathode. All PEC performances were measured under one sun illumination (AM 1.5 G) in 1 M NaOH. The error bars indicate the standard deviation based on three independent measurements. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.