Fig. 2: Effects of antibiotic-induced microbiota alterations on placental vascularization and angiogenesis.

Vancomycin treatment (filled symbols) is associated with a significant reduction of CD31 (green) signaling compared to controls (open symbols) at ed14.5 (a, b, n = 5 samples, p = 0.0481). On the contrary, α-SMA (red, c, d, n = 5 samples, p = 0.0054) and Hif-1α (red, e, f, n = 6 samples, p = 0.0194) expression was increased in the treatment group (filled symbols) compared to controls (open symbols) at ed14.5. Lines represent mean plus SEM, two-sided Unpaired t test (b–f), *p < 0.05. Magnification: 40X (A-C), 20X (e), TER119 (red), DAPI (blue). Multiple areas of the samples were measured, and placentas were harvested from 3 different experiments. Vancomycin treatment is associated with a significant increase of Hypoxiprobe signal (green and filled symbols) compared to controls (open symbols) at ed14.5 in both the junctional zone (g, h, n = 8 samples, p < 0.0001) and labyrinth area (i, j, n = 8 samples, p = 0.0010). Magnification: 40X. Multiple areas of the samples were measured, DAPI (blue); placentas were harvested from 4 different experiments. Lines represent mean plus SEM, two-sided Unpaired t test (h–j), **p < 0.01, ****p < 0.0001. Vancomycin-treatment induces significant up-regulation of Hif-1α (p = 0.0107) and Nos2 (p = 0.0008) genes in placental tissue at ed14.5 compared to controls (n = 13 samples, k Gene up-regulation was assessed by real-time RT-PCR. Bars represent mean plus SEM, two-sided Wilcoxon signed-rank test, ***p < 0.001, ****p < 0.0001. Placentas were harvested from 3 different experiments. See also Supplementary Fig. 2. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.