Fig. 4: Mechanistic investigations.

a, b Cyclic voltammetry curves of 1 mM 1,4-benzoquinone for Cu (a) and Cu@Sustainion (b) in Ar-saturated and CO2-saturated 0.1 M NaHCO3 solution. c The potential difference (ΔE) in CO2 and Ar atmospheres and the derived local CO2 concentration for Cu and Cu@Sustainion. d, e Linear sweep voltammetry curves with iR correction for Cu (d) and Cu@Sustainion (e) at different electrode rotating speeds in Ar-saturated 3 M KCl with 0.05 M H2SO4. f HER kinetic current density (jk) for Cu and Cu@Sustainion. g, h In situ ATR-SEIRAS spectra for Cu (g) and Cu@Sustainion (h) at different applied potentials.