Fig. 3: The dynamics of GPe activity correlate with exploratory behavior, while DLPFC activity lags and correlates with task knowledge.

a mean \(\pm \,\)SEM dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC, top) and external segment of the globus pallidus (GPe, bottom) firing rate (FRs) of the two seconds ensuing reward outcome (purple and brown, respectively) with the probability of reward omission (black). Correlation values between switch probability and neural activity and their corresponding p-values are represented by ‘r’ and ‘p,’ respectively. b Mean \(\pm \,\)SEM DLPFC (top) and GPe (bottom) FRs of the two seconds preceding choice selection with the non-human primates’ (NHPs’) probability of switching to a new key (left), the probability of switching to the new rewarded key (making a successful switch, finding the new association, right top figure), and the probability of switching to an unrewarded key (unsuccessful switch, right bottom figure). c Mean \(\pm \,\)SEM DLPFC (top) and GPe (bottom) firing rate of the two seconds preceding choice selection with the NHPs’ learning slope (black line). d Correlation between mean DLPFC and GPe firing rates (recorded during the two seconds leading to choice selection) during the first ten trials. Left—Comparing DLPFC activity in trial N with GPe activity in trial N + 1. Middle—Comparing DLPFC and GPe concurrent activities. Right—Comparing DLPFC activity in trial N + 1 with GPe activity in trial N. e Correlation values between DLPFC and GPe activities calculated from −4 (DLPFC activity precedes GPe activity by four trials) to +4 (GPe activity precedes DLPFC activity by four trials) trials lag. Bar colors correspond with the correlation color text of subplot (d). All correlation calculations were made using Pearson’s correlation and p-values, Bonferroni corrected for multiple comparisons.