Fig. 7: Layout of European energy infrastructure for different import scenarios.

Panels (a, c, e) show the regional electricity supply mix (pies), added HVDC and HVAC transmission capacity (lines), and the siting of battery storage (choropleth). Panels (b, d, f) show the hydrogen supply (top half of pies) and consumption (bottom half of pies), net flow and direction of hydrogen in newly built pipelines (lines), and the siting of hydrogen storage subject to geological potentials (choropleth). Total volumes of transmission expansion are given in TWkm, which is the sum product of the capacity and length of individual connections. The half circle in the Bay of Biscay indicates the imports of hydrogen derivatives that are not spatially resolved: ammonia, steel, HBI, methanol, Fischer-Tropsch fuels. Hydrogen imports are shown at the entry points. All shown scenarios use technology assumptions for 2040, allow steel and ammonia relocation and have no import volume constraint (when available). Maps for more scenarios are included in Supplementary Figs. 26–29. Source data are provided as a Source Data file. Maps made with Natural Earth. HBI = hot briquetted iron; HVDC = high-voltage direct current; HVAC = high-voltage alternating current; AC = alternating current; DC = direct current; CHP = combined heat and power.