Fig. 3: Proposed dual-structure-breaking electrolyte.

a Average CE and cycle number in different electrolytes at 2 mA cm⁻² and 3 mAh cm⁻² with a NEU of 33%. b Exchange current in 1C and 1C6N electrolytes at different testing temperatures (derived from Supplementary Figs. 28, 29). c Three-electrode CV profiles of Cd plating/stripping behavior in 1C and 1C6N electrolytes at a scan rate of 5 mV s⁻¹, measured at an average testing temperature of 25 ± 2 °C. d Raman spectra of different electrolytes. e, f Snapshot of MD simulation (e) and RDF and CN (f) of 1C electrolyte. g, h, Snapshot of MD simulation (g) and RDF and CN (h) of 1C6N electrolyte. i, j Schematic microenvirment of 1C electrolyte (i) and 1C6N electrolyte (j). k DFT simulations for stepwise-coordination solvation shells of [Cd(H₂O)₆]²⁺, [Cd(H₂O)₅Cl]⁺, [Cd(H₂O)₄Cl₂]⁰ and [CdCl₄]²⁻. l, m DFT simulations for inner [Cd(H₂O₆)]²⁺ with outer H₂O molecules (l) and inner [CdCl₄]²⁻ with outer H₂O molecules (m).