Fig. 2: Characteristics of urbanization effects on precipitation.
From: Asymmetric shifts in precipitation due to urbanization across global cities
a–c Proportion of cities exhibiting varying urbanization effects on the heavy-to-light precipitation ratio (HLP) with respect to city size, build-up surface area, and population, with shaded bars indicating the proportion of significant urbanization effects. d Urbanization effects on HLP across Köppen–Geiger climate zones, including: tropical rainforest (Af), tropical monsoon (Am), tropical savannah (Aw), arid hot steppe (BSh), arid cold steppe (BSk), arid hot desert (BWh), arid cold desert (BWk), temperate with hot summer and no dry season (Cfa), temperate with warm summer and no dry season (Cfb), temperate with hot dry summer (Csa), temperate with warm dry summer (Csb), temperate with hot summer and dry winter (Cwa), temperate with warm summer and dry winter (Cwb), cold with hot summer and no dry season (Dfa), cold with warm summer and no dry season (Dfb), and cold with hot summer and dry winter (Dwa). Boxplots show interquartile ranges (25th–75th percentiles), whiskers extend to non-outlier extremes, and medians are marked by horizontal lines. Outliers are shown as individual points. Gray numbers indicate valid city counts per zone. e Country-level urbanization effects (UP, %) on HLP, with countries containing fewer than five selected cities marked in gray. The inserted number represents the number of cities used for analysis. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.
