Fig. 1: Design, deployment, and validation of the nanowhisker glue.

a Schematic depiction of conventional nanoparticle-based adhesives, which form weak adhesion by physical adsorption. b Schematics of nanowhisker glues deployed by chemical enhancer, microneedling, or ultrasound, forming a mechanically rigid and strong interface between the tissue and the hydrogel matrix. Functional nanoparticles conjugated with nanowhiskers are indicated with orange circles. c, d Force displacement curves and adhesion energy of the ChsNW glue applied between alginate-polyacrylamide hydrogel and porcine skin with different deployment methods. Statistical significance was analyzed using a two-sided Student’s t test. e Correlation between adhesion energy and microneedle (MN) treatment duration. Statistical significance was analyzed using two-sided ANOVA. Data in (d, e) are presented as mean ± SD (n = 3 independent biological replicates). f Adhesion energy of ChsNW glue on tendon or trachea with and without ultrasound (US) treatment. Statistical significance was analyzed using a two-sided Student’s t test. Data are presented as mean ± SD (n = 6 independent biological replicates).