Table 3 Summary of outcomes: parent psychological distress, interparental relationship quality, and parenting quality
Age 1 | Age 2 | Age 3 | Pooled Sample (Ages 1–3) | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Family | Outcome | Hypoth. | Gift Group | N | Mean (SD) | N | Mean (SD) | N | Mean (SD) | N | Mean (SD) |
Panel 3: Parent Psychological Distress | |||||||||||
3 | Perceived stress index | - | Low | 547 | 10.82 (6.35) | 543 | 10.32 (6.19) | 542 | 12.54 (7.41) | 1632 | 11.22 (6.73) |
High | 383 | 11.39 (6.04) | 377 | 10.73 (5.98) | 379 | 13.32 (6.69) | 1139 | 11.81 (6.34) | |||
Perceived stress index (9-item)a | - | Low | 547 | 10.82 (6.35) | 543 | 10.32 (6.19) | 542 | 10.91 (6.84) | 1632 | 10.68 (6.46) | |
High | 383 | 11.39 (6.04) | 377 | 10.73 (5.98) | 379 | 11.59 (6.07) | 1139 | 11.24 (6.04) | |||
3 | Parenting stress index | - | Low | 547 | 15.05 (3.52) | 543 | 14.71 (3.55) | 1090 | 14.88 (3.54) | ||
High | 382 | 15.68 (3.42) | 375 | 15.18 (3.63) | 757 | 15.43 (3.53) | |||||
3 | Maternal depression (PHQ-8) | - | Low | 547 | 3.72 (4.09) | 543 | 2.94 (3.91) | 541 | 3.42 (4.63) | 1631 | 3.36 (4.23) |
High | 383 | 3.91 (4.41) | 376 | 3.21 (4.26) | 378 | 3.23 (3.96) | 1,137 | 3.45 (4.22) | |||
3 | Maternal anxiety (GAD-7) | - | Low | 543 | 2.49 (3.81) | 542 | 3.07 (4.36) | 1085 | 2.78 (4.10) | ||
High | 376 | 2.78 (4.14) | 379 | 3.06 (4.00) | 755 | 2.92 (4.07) | |||||
3 | Maternal anxiety (Beck Anxiety Inventory) | - | Low | 547 | 4.58 (6.57) | 542 | 5.26 (8.17) | 1089 | 4.92 (7.42) | ||
High | 383 | 5.94 (8.34) | 377 | 5.03 (7.42) | 760 | 5.49 (7.91) | |||||
3 | Physiological stress (ln hair cortisol) | - | Low | 210 | 1.73 (1.37) | 210 | 1.73 (1.37) | ||||
High | 154 | 1.89 (1.41) | 154 | 1.89 (1.41) | |||||||
Panel 4: Interparental Relationship Quality | |||||||||||
4 | Co-parenting relationship quality | + | Low | 429 | 19.36 (2.90) | 399 | 19.40 (2.77) | 828 | 19.38 (2.83) | ||
High | 291 | 18.95 (3.36) | 264 | 19.09 (3.13) | 555 | 19.02 (3.25) | |||||
4 | Romantic Relationship Quality Index | + | Low | 325 | 26.98 (3.55) | 305 | 31.14 (2.68) | 466 | 30.21 (3.67) | 1096 | 29.51 (3.78) |
High | 247 | 26.58 (3.76) | 207 | 30.84 (2.95) | 327 | 29.60 (4.00) | 781 | 28.97 (4.04) | |||
Romantic Relationship Quality Index (10-item)a | + | Low | 325 | 26.98 (3.55) | 305 | 28.16 (2.64) | 466 | 27.26 (3.58) | 1096 | 27.43 (3.37) | |
High | 247 | 26.58 (3.76) | 207 | 27.88 (2.86) | 327 | 26.64 (3.92) | 781 | 26.95 (3.65) | |||
4 | Ever cut/bruised/seriously hurt by partner | - | Low | 325 | 0.08 (0.28) | 304 | 0.01 (.11) | 629 | 0.05 (.22) | ||
High | 247 | 0.07 (0.25) | 207 | 0.02 (0.15) | 454 | 0.05 (0.21) | |||||
4 | Frequency of arguing | - | Low | 324 | 2.56 (1.02) | 305 | 2.36 (0.83) | 629 | 2.47 (0.94) | ||
High | 242 | 2.48 (0.96) | 207 | 2.48 (0.83) | 449 | 2.48 (0.90) | |||||
Panel 5: Parenting Quality | |||||||||||
5 | Parent-Child Activities Index | + | Low | 547 | 10.29 (2.68) | 543 | 14.06 (2.98) | 537 | 12.68 (2.50) | 1627 | 12.33 (3.14) |
High | 382 | 10.78 (2.58) | 376 | 14.45 (2.83) | 378 | 13.07 (2.41) | 1136 | 12.76 (3.02) | |||
Parent-Child Activities Index (3-item)a | + | Low | 547 | 8.82 (2.37) | 543 | 9.57 (2.13) | 537 | 9.44 (1.97) | 1627 | 9.27 (2.18) | |
High | 382 | 9.27 (2.20) | 375 | 9.88 (1.85) | 377 | 9.78 (1.89) | 1134 | 9.64 (2.00) | |||
5 | Parent-child interaction (PICCOLO) | + | Low | 307 | 41.39 (5.48) | 307 | 41.39 (5.48) | ||||
High | 236 | 41.63 (5.39) | 236 | 41.63 (5.39) | |||||||
5 | Spanking discipline strategy indicator | + | Low | 339 | 0.06 (0.24) | 542 | 0.19 (0.39) | 540 | 0.20 (0.40) | 1421 | 0.16 (0.37) |
High | 257 | 0.07 (0.25) | 372 | 0.14 (0.34) | 377 | 0.17 (0.38) | 1006 | 0.13 (0.34) | |||
