Fig. 4: Multi-modal sensing characterization.

a FEbot (Type I) configuration with integrated sensory modules. b Experimental setup for simultaneous proprioceptive and exteroceptive measurements. c Environmental monitoring using a miniature camera (1 g mass; model MC900, 3RDEE Co., Ltd.). d Recorded parameters including body posture, curvature, humidity, and temperature during locomotion. e Strain sensor array configuration for pathway morphology detection. f Comparison of reconstructed and actual pathway geometries with arc radii of 86, 67, and 48 mm.