Fig. 1: Chemical degradation mitigation through surface modification and corresponding electrochemical properties.

a Current–time curves of the cathode-SE composite (65:35 wt%) under a polarization of 200 mV in a steel|NCM composite|steel ion-blocking cell, and b current–time curves of the cathode-SE composite (65:35 wt%) under a polarization of 50 mV in an electron-blocking cell, composed of In/InLi|LPSCl|NCM composite|LPSCl|In/InLi, for both bare NCM and LiDFP NCM. TOF-SIMS 3D depth spectra and 3D images of c bare NCM and d LiDFP NCM for S−, LiS−, PS3−, and NiO2− anion after the first cycling. Comparison of e rate capability of bare NCM and LiDFP NCM at varying C-rates: C/10, C/4, C/2, 1 C, 2 C, 3 C, and back to C/10 and subsequent f long-term cycle performance at C/2 between bare NCM and LiDFP NCM at 25 °C under a stack pressure of 120 MPa with 7.4 mg/cm2 active material mass loading.