Table 3 Country-level predictors

Population density (people per km²)

World Development Indicators⁸⁶

High population density may be associated with advanced flood protection, warning, and response infrastructure

*Population ≤14 years (% of total population)

Human development, poverty; countries with young demographics can be associated with lower human development and resilience to flood risk^24,50,51

*Population ≥65 years (% of total population)

Human development; high life expectancy indicates well developed health care systems and other social services^47,48,49.

GDP per capita PPP (current international $)

Public assets; economic development/wealth can be a proxy for higher resilience against flood risk^24,74

Urban population (% ot total population)

Advanced infrastructure and services, preparedness and response in urban areas vs. increased vulnerability of rural areas^22,40

**Urban population growth (annual %)

Rapid growth is associated with human/economic development/informal settlements²⁴.

*,**Population growth (annual %)

Rapid growth is associated with informal settlements in flood plains at high risk²⁴.

*Infant mortality rate (deaths within first year per 1000 live births)

Human development, poverty, access to healthcare and social services

Education Index (average of mean years of schooling and expected years of schooling)

Smits & Permanyer ⁸⁷

Economic impacts of disasters lower in countries with higher educational attainment⁷⁴.

Education important predictor of flood-induced fatalities⁷³.

Electoral Democracy Index

V-Dem Dataset⁸⁸

Accountable institutions are associated with more effective protection and response to disasters, but also lower vulnerability to risks associated with floods^18,89,90.