Fig. 2: Changes in surface heating and winds over the Southern Ocean.

a, b Linear trends in surface net heat flux (Qnet) and wind stress curl (WSC; shading) for the period of 1960–2020, based on European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) reanalysis dataset version 5 (ERA5). In b trends of wind stress are show as vectors. c, d Linear trends in Qnet and WSC over 1960-2020 derived from CESM1-LE ensemble-mean. Stippling in (a–d) indicates insignificant changes at the 95% confidence level.