Table 1 Benchmark alternatives to chromate with given prediction results examples.

#	Benchmark alternatives to chromate^10,38,39	Examples from the NLP predictions
1	Trivalent chromium
2	Rare-earth-based inhibitors (aka lanthanide systems)	Cerium, CeN₃O₉
3	Vanadate based inhibitors	BiO₄V (BiVO₄), vanadate
4	Li-containing conversion coatings/primers	Lithium, LDH
5	Organic systems	Polyurethane, amines, BTA
6	Phosphate-based systems	Zinc phosphate, phosphates
7	Mg-rich primers
8	Zirconium conversion coatings
9	Titanium-containing conversion coatings
10	Silicon based systems	Silanes and sol–gel
11	Zinc-based coatings
12	Molybdate compounds	Molybdate, MoNa₂O₄ (Na₂MoO₄)
13	Calcium based systems
14	Electro-coatings/Electrophoretic systems	Electroplating, Co–P
15	Nanocomposites incl. nanoparticles	Alumina, ceria, titania, graphene
16	TFSAA (thin film sulfuric acid anodisation)	Anodising
17	BSAA (boric sulfuric acid anodising)	Anodising, sulfuric
18	Filled electroless nickel
19	WC/C (tungsten carbide carbon) coating	WC–Co, WC, (WCr)₂C-Ni
20	Nitride coatings	TiN, Cr_xN, TiN/CrN

The list of benchmark categories was derived from three research sources^10,38,39. The prediction results in both Word2Vec and BERT models were manually identified, and part of the relevant materials was allocated here.

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