Extended Data Fig. 2: Renewable energy Energy Return On Investment (EROI) equivalent to fossil fuels used as fuels only.

Final-stage EROI equivalent (that is, the value above which renewable energy systems would deliver more net useful energy than fossil fuels) calculated for 2020 at the global level alongside literature-sourced EROIs (from30) of solar photovoltaics (PV) and wind power, a, economy-wide, and b, by end-use category. Dark shades correspond to the EROI equivalent when indirect energy requirements are included in fossil fuels’ EROI calculations. Light shades correspond to the EROI equivalent when indirect energy requirements are excluded. Calculations consist of a weighted average of fossil fuels used as fuels only.