Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Perspective
  • Published:

The nature of the relation between mental well-being and ill-being

Nature Human Behaviour (2025)Cite this article

Subjects

Abstract

Research on mental health has traditionally separated the study of ill-being, including clinically defined mental and behavioural disorders and subthreshold problems, from the study of well-being, which encompasses factors such as life satisfaction and positive affect. Although previous reviews of studies primarily using self-report scales indicate that ill-being and well-being are distinct yet interconnected constructs, a deeper examination of their relationship is lacking. In this Perspective, we synthesize genetic, biological, developmental, psychosocial, societal, cultural and clinical research on ill-being and well-being. Our review reveals substantial genetic overlap and similar biological underpinnings for ill-being and well-being. By contrast, environmental factors and societal changes often exert divergent influences. We propose a differentiated multidisciplinary framework in which the shared and unique determinants, predictors, mechanisms and consequences of mental ill-being and well-being vary across levels of analysis, offering a more nuanced understanding of the interconnections.

Access through your institution
Buy or subscribe

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Access through your institution

Buy this article

  • Purchase on SpringerLink
  • Instant access to full article PDF
Buy now

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Fig. 1: Models of mental health.
Fig. 2: Multilevel life-course model of ill-being and well-being.

References

  1. Caspi, A. et al. Longitudinal assessment of mental health disorders and comorbidities across 4 decades among participants in the Dunedin Birth Cohort Study. JAMA Netw. Open 3, e203221 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  2. Kessler, R. C., et al. Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 62, 593–602 (2005).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Walker, E. R., McGee, R. E. & Druss, B. G. Mortality in mental disorders and global disease burden implications: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry 72, 334–341 (2015).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  4. Whiteford, H. A. et al. Global burden of disease attributable to mental and substance use disorders: findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet 382, 1575–1586 (2013).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Johnson, J. C. S., Byrne, G. J. & Pelecanos, A. M. The prevalence of subthreshold psychiatric symptoms and associations with alcohol and substance use disorders: from a nationally representative survey of 36,309 adults. BMC Psychiatry 22, 270 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  6. Caspi, A. et al. The p factor: one general psychopathology factor in the structure of psychiatric disorders?. Clin. Psychol. Sci. 2, 119–137 (2014).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  7. Kotov, R. et al. The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP): a quantitative nosology based on consensus of evidence. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 17, 83–108 (2021).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Diener, E., Oishi, S. & Tay, L. Advances in subjective well-being research. Nat. Hum. Behav. 2, 253–260 (2018).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Diener, E. et al. Findings all psychologists should know from the new science on subjective well-being. Can. Psychol. 58, 87–104 (2017).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Ruggeri, K., Garcia-Garzon, E., Maguire, Á, Matz, S. & Huppert, F. A. Well-being is more than happiness and life satisfaction: a multidimensional analysis of 21 countries. Health Qual. Life Outcomes 18, 192 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  11. Patel, V. et al. The Lancet Commission on global mental health and sustainable development. Lancet 392, 1553–1598 (2018).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Adler, A. & Seligman, M. E. P. Using wellbeing for public policy: theory, measurement, and recommendations. Int. J. Wellbeing 6, 1–35 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Helliwell, J. F. & Aknin, L. B. Expanding the social science of happiness. Nat. Hum. Behav. 2, 248–252 (2018).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Ryan, R. M. & Deci, E. L. On happiness and human potentials: a review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 52, 141–166 (2001).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Bjørndal, L. D., Nes, R. B., Czajkowski, N. & Røysamb, E. The structure of well-being: a single underlying factor with genetic and environmental influences. Qual. Life Res. 32, 2805–2816 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  16. Huppert, F. A. & So, T. T. C. Flourishing across Europe: application of a new conceptual framework for defining well-being. Soc. Indic. Res. 110, 837–861 (2013).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Keyes, C. L. M. in Flourishing: Positive Psychology and the Life Well-Lived (eds Keyes, C. L. M. & Haidt, J.) 293–312 (American Psychological Association, 2003).

  18. Tay, L., Su, R. & Rounds, J. People–things and data–ideas: bipolar dimensions?. J. Couns. Psychol. 58, 424–440 (2011).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Zhao, M. Y. & Tay, L. From ill-being to well-being: bipolar or bivariate?. J. Posit. Psychol. 18, 649–659 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Mason Stephens, J., Iasiello, M., Ali, K., van Agteren, J. & Fassnacht, D. B. The importance of measuring mental wellbeing in the context of psychological distress: using a theoretical framework to test the dual-continua model of mental health. Behav. Sci. 13, 436 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. Iasiello, M., Van Agteren, J., Ali, K. & Fassnacht, D. B. Positive psychology is better served by a bivariate rather than bipolar conceptualization of mental health and mental illness: a commentary on Zhao & Tay (2022). J. Posit. Psychol. 19, 337–341 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Iasiello, M., Van Agteren, J. & Cochrane, E. M. Mental health and/or mental illness: a scoping review of the evidence and implications of the dual-continua model of mental health. Evid. Base 2020, 1–45 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Torvik, F. A. et al. Continuity of genetic and environmental influences on clinically assessed major depression from ages 18 to 45. Psychol. Med. 49, 2582–2590 (2019).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Nes, R. B. & Røysamb, E. in Genetics of Psychological Well-Being: The Role of Heritability and Genetics in Positive Psychology (ed. Pluess, M.) 75–96 (Oxford Univ. Press, 2015).

  25. Bartels, M. Genetics of wellbeing and its components satisfaction with life, happiness, and quality of life: a review and meta-analysis of heritability studies. Behav. Genet. 45, 137–156 (2015).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Samuelsen, K., Ystrom, E., Gjerde, L. C. & Eilertsen, E. M. Kind of blue—an evaluation of etiologies for prenatal versus postnatal depression symptoms. J. Affect. Disord. 335, 305–312 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Bjørndal, L. D., Kendler, K. S., Reichborn-Kjennerud, T. & Ystrom, E. Stressful life events increase the risk of major depressive episodes: a population-based twin study. Psychol. Med. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291722002227 (2022).

  28. Sullivan, P. F., Neale, M. C. & Kendler, K. S. Genetic epidemiology of major depression: review and meta-analysis. Am. J. Psychiatry 157, 1552–1562 (2000).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Andreassen, O. A., Hindley, G. F. L., Frei, O. & Smeland, O. B. New insights from the last decade of research in psychiatric genetics: discoveries, challenges and clinical implications. World Psychiatry 22, 4–24 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  30. Bartels, M. et al. in World Happiness Report 2022 (eds Helliwell, J. F. et al.) Ch. 5 (Sustainable Development Solutions Network, 2022).

  31. Baselmans, B. M. L. et al. Multivariate genome-wide analyses of the well-being spectrum. Nat. Genet. 51, 445–451 (2019).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Okbay, A. et al. Genetic variants associated with subjective well-being, depressive symptoms, and neuroticism identified through genome-wide analyses. Nat. Genet. 48, 624–633 (2016).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. Howard, D. M. et al. Genome-wide meta-analysis of depression identifies 102 independent variants and highlights the importance of the prefrontal brain regions. Nat. Neurosci. 22, 343–352 (2019).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. Lewis, C. M. & Vassos, E. Polygenic scores in psychiatry: on the road from discovery to implementation. Am. J. Psychiatry 179, 800–806 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Nes, R. B. et al. Major depression and life satisfaction: a population-based twin study. J. Affect. Disord. 144, 51–58 (2013).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. De Vries, L. P., Van Beijsterveldt, T. C. E. M., Maes, H., Colodro-Conde, L. & Bartels, M. Genetic influences on the covariance and genetic correlations in a bivariate twin model: an application to well-being. Behav. Genet. 51, 191–203 (2021).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  37. De Vries, L. P. et al. Distinguishing happiness and meaning in life from depressive symptoms: a GWAS -by-subtraction study in the UK Biobank. Am. J. Med. Genet. B Neuropsychiatr. Genet. 195, e32954 (2024).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Kendler, K. S., Myers, J. M. & Keyes, C. L. M. The relationship between the genetic and environmental influences on common externalizing psychopathology and mental wellbeing. Twin Res. Hum. Genet. 14, 516–523 (2011).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  39. Van Rheenen, W., Peyrot, W. J., Schork, A. J., Lee, S. H. & Wray, N. R. Genetic correlations of polygenic disease traits: from theory to practice. Nat. Rev. Genet. 20, 567–581 (2019).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Polderman, T. J. C. et al. Meta-analysis of the heritability of human traits based on fifty years of twin studies. Nat. Genet. 47, 702–709 (2015).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Røysamb, E., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Ystrøm, E. & Nes, R. B. Worldwide well-being: simulated twins reveal genetic and (hidden) environmental influences. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 18, 1562–1574 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  42. Eilertsen, E. M. et al. On the importance of parenting in externalizing disorders: an evaluation of indirect genetic effects in families. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 63, 1186–1195 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  43. McAdams, T. A. et al. Accounting for genetic and environmental confounds in associations between parent and child characteristics: a systematic review of children-of-twins studies. Psychol. Bull. 140, 1138–1173 (2014).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Bjørndal, L. D. et al. Disentangling direct and indirect genetic effects from partners and offspring on maternal depression using trio-GCTA. Nat. Ment. Health 2, 417–425 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Ayorech, Z. et al. Maternal depression and the polygenic p factor: a family perspective on direct and indirect effects. J. Affect. Disord. 332, 159–167 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Cattarinussi, G., Delvecchio, G., Sambataro, F. & Brambilla, P. The effect of polygenic risk scores for major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder and schizophrenia on morphological brain measures: a systematic review of the evidence. J. Affect. Disord. 310, 213–222 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Thompson, P. M. et al. ENIGMA and global neuroscience: a decade of large-scale studies of the brain in health and disease across more than 40 countries. Transl. Psychiatry 10, 100 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  48. Schmaal, L. et al. ENIGMA MDD: seven years of global neuroimaging studies of major depression through worldwide data sharing. Transl. Psychiatry 10, 172 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  49. Toenders, Y. J. et al. Neuroimaging predictors of onset and course of depression in childhood and adolescence: a systematic review of longitudinal studies. Dev. Cogn. Neurosci. 39, 100700 (2019).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  50. Sprooten, E., Franke, B. & Greven, C. U. The P-factor and its genomic and neural equivalents: an integrated perspective. Mol. Psychiatry 27, 38–48 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. De Vries, L. P., Van De Weijer, M. P. & Bartels, M. A systematic review of the neural correlates of well-being reveals no consistent associations. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 145, 105036 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Jamshidi, J., Park, H. R. P., Montalto, A., Fullerton, J. M. & Gatt, J. M. Wellbeing and brain structure: a comprehensive phenotypic and genetic study of image-derived phenotypes in the UK Biobank. Hum. Brain Mapp. 43, 5180–5193 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  53. Bos, M. G. N., Peters, S., van de Kamp, F. C., Crone, E. A. & Tamnes, C. K. Emerging depression in adolescence coincides with accelerated frontal cortical thinning. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 59, 994–1002 (2018).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  54. Tiego, J. et al. Precision behavioral phenotyping as a strategy for uncovering the biological correlates of psychopathology. Nat. Ment. Health 1, 304–315 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  55. De Vries, L. P., Van De Weijer, M. P. & Bartels, M. The human physiology of well-being: a systematic review on the association between neurotransmitters, hormones, inflammatory markers, the microbiome and well-being. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 139, 104733 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Osimo, E. F., Baxter, L. J., Lewis, G., Jones, P. B. & Khandaker, G. M. Prevalence of low-grade inflammation in depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis of CRP levels. Psychol. Med. 49, 1958–1970 (2019).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  57. Kennis, M. et al. Prospective biomarkers of major depressive disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Mol. Psychiatry 25, 321–338 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Barth, C., Crestol, A., De Lange, A.-M. G. & Galea, L. A. M. Sex steroids and the female brain across the lifespan: insights into risk of depression and Alzheimer’s disease. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 11, 926–941 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Tian, Y. E. et al. Heterogeneous aging across multiple organ systems and prediction of chronic disease and mortality. Nat. Med. 29, 1221–1231 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Patalay, P. & Fitzsimons, E. Development and predictors of mental ill-health and wellbeing from childhood to adolescence. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 53, 1311–1323 (2018).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Batz-Barbarich, C., Tay, L., Kuykendall, L. & Cheung, H. K. A meta-analysis of gender differences in subjective well-being: estimating effect sizes and associations with gender inequality. Psychol. Sci. 29, 1491–1503 (2018).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Steptoe, A., Deaton, A. & Stone, A. A. Subjective wellbeing, health, and ageing. Lancet 385, 640–648 (2015).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Galambos, N. L., Krahn, H. J., Johnson, M. D. & Lachman, M. E. The U shape of happiness across the life course: expanding the discussion. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 15, 898–912 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  64. Sutin, A. R., et al. The trajectory of depressive symptoms across the adult life span. JAMA Psychiatry 70, 803–811 (2013).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  65. Caspi, A. & Moffitt, T. E. All for one and one for all: mental disorders in one dimension. Am. J. Psychiatry 175, 831–844 (2018).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  66. Nigg, J. T. Annual research review: on the relations among self-regulation, self-control, executive functioning, effortful control, cognitive control, impulsivity, risk-taking, and inhibition for developmental psychopathology. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 58, 361–383 (2017).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Hofmann, W., Luhmann, M., Fisher, R. R., Vohs, K. D. & Baumeister, R. F. Yes, but are they happy? Effects of trait self-control on affective well-being and life satisfaction. J. Pers. 82, 265–277 (2014).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Kotov, R., Gamez, W., Schmidt, F. & Watson, D. Linking ‘big’ personality traits to anxiety, depressive, and substance use disorders: a meta-analysis. Psychol. Bull. 136, 768–821 (2010).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Anglim, J., Horwood, S., Smillie, L. D., Marrero, R. J. & Wood, J. K. Predicting psychological and subjective well-being from personality: a meta-analysis. Psychol. Bull. 146, 279–323 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Baumeister, R. F. & Leary, M. R. The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychol. Bull. 117, 497–529 (1995).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Park, C. et al. The effect of loneliness on distinct health outcomes: a comprehensive review and meta-analysis. Psychiatry Res. 294, 113514 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Bjørndal, L. D., Ebrahimi, O. V., Lan, X., Nes, R. B. & Røysamb, E. Mental health and environmental factors in adults: a population-based network analysis. Am. Psychol. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0001208 (2023).

  73. Helliwell, J. F., Huang, H. & Wang, S. in World Happiness Report 2019 (eds Helliwell, J. F. et al.) Ch. 2 (Sustainable Development Solutions Network, 2019).

  74. Collishaw, S. Annual research review: secular trends in child and adolescent mental health. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 56, 370–393 (2015).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Cosma, A. et al. Cross-national time trends in adolescent mental well-being from 2002 to 2018 and the explanatory role of schoolwork pressure. J. Adolesc. Health 66, S50–S58 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  76. Helliwell, J. F., Huang, H., Wang, S. & Norton, M. in World Happiness Report 2022 (eds Helliwell, J. F. et al.) Ch. 2 (Sustainable Development Solutions Network, 2022).

  77. Santomauro, D. F. et al. Global prevalence and burden of depressive and anxiety disorders in 204 countries and territories in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Lancet 398, 1700–1712 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  78. Lwin, M. O. et al. Global sentiments surrounding the COVID-19 pandemic on Twitter: analysis of Twitter trends. JMIR Public Health Surveill. 6, e19447 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  79. De Silva, M. J. Social capital and mental illness: a systematic review. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 59, 619–627 (2005).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  80. Kirkbride, J. B. et al. The social determinants of mental health and disorder: evidence, prevention and recommendations. World Psychiatry 23, 58–90 (2024).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  81. Delle Fave, A. et al. Lay definitions of happiness across nations: the primacy of inner harmony and relational connectedness. Front. Psychol. 7, 30 (2016).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  82. Krys, K. et al. Introduction to a culturally sensitive measure of well-being: combining life satisfaction and interdependent happiness across 49 different cultures. J. Happiness Stud. 24, 607–627 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  83. Carr, A. et al. Effectiveness of positive psychology interventions: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Posit. Psychol. 16, 749–769 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  84. Carr, A. et al. The evidence-base for positive psychology interventions: a mega-analysis of meta-analyses. J. Posit. Psychol. 19, 191–205 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  85. Kolovos, S., Kleiboer, A. & Cuijpers, P. Effect of psychotherapy for depression on quality of life: meta-analysis. Br. J. Psychiatry 209, 460–468 (2016).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Hofmann, S. G., Curtiss, J., Carpenter, J. K. & Kind, S. Effect of treatments for depression on quality of life: a meta-analysis. Cogn. Behav. Ther. 46, 265–286 (2017).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  87. McGuire, J., Kaiser, C. & Bach-Mortensen, A. M. A systematic review and meta-analysis of the impact of cash transfers on subjective well-being and mental health in low- and middle-income countries. Nat. Hum. Behav. 6, 359–370 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Bronfenbrenner, U. & Ceci, S. J. Nature–nurture reconceptualized in developmental perspective: a bioecological model. Psychol. Rev. 101, 568–586 (1994).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Tamnes, C. K. et al. Relationships between wellbeing polygenic scores, brain structure, and psychopathology in children. Pers. Individ. Differ. 246, 113313 (2025).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  90. Masten, A. S., Lucke, C. M., Nelson, K. M. & Stallworthy, I. C. Resilience in development and psychopathology: multisystem perspectives. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 17, 521–549 (2021).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Thomson, R. M. et al. How do income changes impact on mental health and wellbeing for working-age adults? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Public Health 7, e515–e528 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  92. Røysamb, E., Nes, R. B., Czajkowski, N. O. & Vassend, O. Genetics, personality and wellbeing: a twin study of traits, facets and life satisfaction. Sci. Rep. 8, 12298 (2018).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  93. Røysamb, E. & Nes, R. B. in Handbook of Eudaimonic Well-Being (ed. Vittersø, J.) 233–252 (Springer International, 2016).

  94. Goodman, F. R. Assessing well-being in clinical research and treatment. Nat. Ment. Health 3, 167–174 (2025).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  95. Fried, E. I. The 52 symptoms of major depression: lack of content overlap among seven common depression scales. J. Affect. Disord. 208, 191–197 (2017).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Brayne, C. & Moffitt, T. E. The limitations of large-scale volunteer databases to address inequalities and global challenges in health and aging. Nat. Aging 2, 775–783 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  97. Krys, K. et al. Happiness maximization is a WEIRD way of living. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916231208367 (2024).

  98. MacSweeney, N., Toenders, Y. J. & Tamnes, C. K. Neuroimaging insights into adolescent depression risk and development. Nat. Ment. Health 3, 772–779 (2025).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  99. Zhao, Y., Yin, D., Wang, L. & Yu, Y. The rise of artificial intelligence, the fall of human wellbeing? Int. J. Soc. Welf. 33, 75–105 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  100. Orben, A., Meier, A., Dalgleish, T. & Blakemore, S.-J. Mechanisms linking social media use to adolescent mental health vulnerability. Nat. Rev. Psychol. 3, 407–423 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  101. Lawrance, E. L., Thompson, R., Newberry Le Vay, J., Page, L. & Jennings, N. The impact of climate change on mental health and emotional wellbeing: a narrative review of current evidence, and its implications. Int. Rev. Psychiatry 34, 443–498 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Savage, M. The Return of Inequality: Social Change and the Weight of the Past (Harvard Univ. Press, 2021).

  103. Van Bavel, J. J., Gadarian, S. K., Knowles, E. & Ruggeri, K. Political polarization and health. Nat. Med. 30, 3085–3093 (2024).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Research Council of Norway (grant nos 262177, 262700, 274611, 288083, 300668, 300816, 301004, 301010, 314601, 314843, 320709, 323951, 324620, 325898, 331640, 334093, 336078 and 345560); the South-Eastern Norway Regional Health Authority (grant nos 2021070, 2023012 and 500189); NordForsk (grant nos 147386 and 156298); Moss Municipality, Norway; the County Governor of Oslo and Viken, Norway; the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (grant no. TMB403); Stichting Volksbond Rotterdam; the Jacobs Foundation (grant no. 2023-1510-00); the Foundation DAM (grant nos 2021/FO347381 and 2021/FO347431); a Wellcome Trust Senior Research Fellowship (grant no. 220382/Z/20/Z); the Einstein Foundation Berlin (grant no. EZ-2019-555-2); the National Institutes of Health (grant no. R01DA054313); and the European Union (grant nos 818420, 818425, 101045526, 101073237 and 101088481). The views and opinions expressed are, however, those of the authors only and do not necessarily reflect those of the European Union or the European Research Council Executive Agency. Neither the European Union nor the granting authority can be held responsible for them. The funders had no role in the conceptualization or preparation of the manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. PROMENTA Research Center, Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

    Christian K. Tamnes, Mona Bekkhus, Maja Eilertsen, Ragnhild B. Nes, Monica Beer Prydz, Eivind Ystrom, Eira R. Aksnes, Synøve N. Andersen, Helga Ask, Ziada Ayorech, Dani Beck, Eirik Jerven Berger, Ludvig D. Bjørndal, Olga D. Boer, Avshalom Caspi, Rosa Cheesman, Razieh Chegeni, Laura Cortés-García, Perline A. Demange, Joakim C. Ebeltoft, Maud Edvoll, Nikolai Haahjem Eftedal, Espen Moen Eilertsen, Yuan Fang, Lia Ferschmann, Sam Fluit, Siri H. Folstad, Liridona Gashi, Thomas Hansen, Live S. Hofgaard, Valerie Karl, Michal Kozák, Kristian G. Krogshus, Jinrui Liu, Niamh MacSweeney, Lilian Mayerhofer, Tom A. McAdams, Terrie E. Moffitt, Nasimeh Naseri, Linn B. Norbom, Egil Nygaard, Qi Qin, Rubén Rodríguez-Cano, Dinka Smajlagic, Ole Martin Solberg, Anneli D. Tandberg, Irene J. E. Teulings, Fartein Ask Torvik, Stella Tsotsi, Vidar S. Ulset, Emily G. Vira, Espen Røysamb & Tilmann von Soest

  2. Division of Mental Health and Substance Abuse, Diakonhjemmet Hospital, Oslo, Norway

    Christian K. Tamnes, Eira R. Aksnes, Dani Beck & Niamh MacSweeney

  3. Division of Public Health and Prevention, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway

    Maja Eilertsen, Ragnhild B. Nes, Monica Beer Prydz, Helga Ask, Kristin Gustavson, Thomas Hansen, Thomas S. Nilsen, Aurora Oftedal, Emily G. Vira & Espen Røysamb

  4. Department of Philosophy, Classics, and History of Arts and Ideas, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

    Ragnhild B. Nes

  5. PsychGen Center for Genetic Epidemiology and Mental Health, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway

    Eivind Ystrom, Helga Ask, Rosa Cheesman & Fartein Ask Torvik

  6. Centre for Research on Equality in Education, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

    Eivind Ystrom

  7. Department of Sociology and Human Geography, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

    Synøve N. Andersen, Tina Baier, Eirik Jerven Berger, Liridona Gashi, Torkild H. Lyngstad & Willy Pedersen

  8. WZB Berlin Social Science Center, Einstein Center Population Diversity, Berlin, Germany

    Tina Baier

  9. Department of Psychology, Education and Child Studies, Erasmus School of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands

    Olga D. Boer

  10. Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Sophia Children’s Hospital, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands

    Olga D. Boer

  11. Developmental and Educational Psychology Unit, Institute of Psychology, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands

    Marieke G. N. Bos

  12. Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands

    Marieke G. N. Bos

  13. Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA

    Avshalom Caspi & Terrie E. Moffitt

  14. Department of Psychology, University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway

    Laura Cortés-García & Rubén Rodríguez-Cano

  15. Norwegian Centre for Violence and Traumatic Stress Studies, Oslo, Norway

    Lia Ferschmann

  16. Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

    Eivor Fredriksen, Kristin Gustavson & Vegard Skirbekk

  17. Norwegian Social Research, Oslo Metropolitan University, Oslo, Norway

    Michal Kozák & Willy Pedersen

  18. Institute of Health and Society, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

    Kristian G. Krogshus

  19. Virginia Institute for Psychiatric and Behavioral Genetics, Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA

    Hermine H. M. Maes

  20. Social, Genetic & Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK

    Tom A. McAdams

  21. Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden

    Nasimeh Naseri

  22. Centre for Fertility and Health, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway

    Vegard Skirbekk & Fartein Ask Torvik

  23. Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA

    Dinka Smajlagic

  24. Department of Nursing and Health Promotion, Oslo Metropolitan University, Oslo, Norway

    Stella Tsotsi

Authors
  1. Christian K. Tamnes
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Mona Bekkhus
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Maja Eilertsen
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Ragnhild B. Nes
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Monica Beer Prydz
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Eivind Ystrom
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Eira R. Aksnes
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Synøve N. Andersen
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Helga Ask
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  10. Ziada Ayorech
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  11. Tina Baier
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  12. Dani Beck
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  13. Eirik Jerven Berger
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  14. Ludvig D. Bjørndal
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  15. Olga D. Boer
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  16. Marieke G. N. Bos
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  17. Avshalom Caspi
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  18. Rosa Cheesman
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  19. Razieh Chegeni
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  20. Laura Cortés-García
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  21. Perline A. Demange
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  22. Joakim C. Ebeltoft
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  23. Maud Edvoll
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  24. Nikolai Haahjem Eftedal
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  25. Espen Moen Eilertsen
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  26. Yuan Fang
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  27. Lia Ferschmann
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  28. Sam Fluit
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  29. Siri H. Folstad
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  30. Eivor Fredriksen
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  31. Liridona Gashi
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  32. Kristin Gustavson
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  33. Thomas Hansen
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  34. Live S. Hofgaard
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  35. Valerie Karl
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  36. Michal Kozák
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  37. Kristian G. Krogshus
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  38. Jinrui Liu
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  39. Torkild H. Lyngstad
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  40. Niamh MacSweeney
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  41. Hermine H. M. Maes
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  42. Lilian Mayerhofer
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  43. Tom A. McAdams
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  44. Terrie E. Moffitt
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  45. Nasimeh Naseri
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  46. Thomas S. Nilsen
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  47. Linn B. Norbom
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  48. Egil Nygaard
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  49. Aurora Oftedal
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  50. Willy Pedersen
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  51. Qi Qin
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  52. Rubén Rodríguez-Cano
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  53. Vegard Skirbekk
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  54. Dinka Smajlagic
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  55. Ole Martin Solberg
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  56. Anneli D. Tandberg
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  57. Irene J. E. Teulings
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  58. Fartein Ask Torvik
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  59. Stella Tsotsi
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  60. Vidar S. Ulset
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  61. Emily G. Vira
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  62. Espen Røysamb
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  63. Tilmann von Soest
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

C.K.T., M.B., M.E., R.B.N., M.B.P., E.Y., R. Chegeni, E.R. and T.v.S. conceptualized the project. C.K.T., M.B., M.E., R.B.N., M.B.P., E.Y., E.R. and T.v.S. wrote the original manuscript. E.R.A., S.N.A., H.A., Z.A., T.B., D.B., E.J.B., L.D.B., O.D.B., M.G.N.B., A.C., R. Cheesman, R. Chegeni, L.C.-G., P.A.D., J.C.E., M.E., N.H.E., E.M.E., Y.F., L.F., S.F., S.H.F., E.F., L.G., K.G., T.H., L.S.H., V.K., M.K., K.G.K., J.L., T.H.L., N.M., H.H.M.M., L.M., T.A.M., T.E.M., N.N., T.S.N., L.B.N., E.N., A.O., W.P., Q.Q., R.R.-C., V.S., D.S., O.M.S., A.D.T., I.J.E.T., F.A.T., S.T., V.S.U. and E.G.V. provided comprehensive feedback on the manuscript. C.K.T. and T.v.S. produced the figures. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Christian K. Tamnes.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Peer review

Peer review information

Nature Human Behaviour thanks Matt Iasiello and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

Supplementary Information

Supplementary text (literature search).

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Tamnes, C.K., Bekkhus, M., Eilertsen, M. et al. The nature of the relation between mental well-being and ill-being. Nat Hum Behav (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-025-02319-x

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-025-02319-x

Search

Advanced search

Quick links

Nature Briefing

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing