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Emerging mechanically interlocked cages

Nature Reviews Chemistry volume 9, pages 506–522 (2025)Cite this article

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Abstract

Mechanically interlocked molecules, including catenanes, rotaxanes and knots, are an intriguing class of synthetic targets with potential applications in molecular switches and machines. Although mechanically interlocked molecules are typically constructed using macrocyclic frameworks, the interlocking of two or more three-dimensional, shape-persistent cages remains relatively underexplored. Recent advances have accelerated the development of mechanically interlocked cages (MICs), which consist of interlocked three-dimensional molecular cages rather than macrocycles. Despite their potential in areas such as molecular recognition, separation and catalysis, the design and synthesis of MICs remain challenging. This Review examines the synthetic strategies used to construct MICs, along with their interlocked architecture characteristics, structural dynamics and potential applications. Special attention is given to the guest-binding properties and catalytic performance of monomeric versus catenated cages. We conclude with perspectives on the current challenges and opportunities for future development of MICs.

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Fig. 1: Mechanically interlocked cages.
Fig. 2: Different approaches for the construction of interlocked coordination cages.
Fig. 3: Dynamic reversible reaction approach to interlocked organic cages.
Fig. 4: Irreversible reaction approach to interlocked organic cages.
Fig. 5: Design and synthesis of a hetero-interlocked cage.
Fig. 6: Molecular recognition and separation of mechanically interlocked cages (MICs).
Fig. 7: Catalytic applications of mechanically interlocked cages (MICs).

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Acknowledgements

This work was funded by the National Key R&D Program of China (2022YFA1503302, 2021YFA1200302, 2021YFA1200402 and 2021YFA1501501), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grants 22225111, 22331007 and 22271184), and the Key Project of Basic Research of Shanghai (22JC1402000).

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Author notes

  1. These authors contributed equally: Enping Du, Xianhui Tang.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China

    Enping Du, Xianhui Tang, Wenqiang Zhang, Jinqiao Dong, Yong Cui & Yan Liu

  2. State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China

    Enping Du, Xianhui Tang, Wenqiang Zhang, Jinqiao Dong, Yong Cui & Yan Liu

Authors
  1. Enping Du
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  2. Xianhui Tang
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  3. Wenqiang Zhang
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  4. Jinqiao Dong
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  5. Yong Cui
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  6. Yan Liu
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Contributions

E.D. and X.T. contributed equally. All authors contributed to the discussion of the content and the writing of the manuscript.

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Correspondence to Jinqiao Dong, Yong Cui or Yan Liu.

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Nature Reviews Chemistry thanks Valeria Amendola, James Lewis, Guo-Xin Jin and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

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Du, E., Tang, X., Zhang, W. et al. Emerging mechanically interlocked cages. Nat Rev Chem 9, 506–522 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41570-025-00721-7

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