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Inhibiting and rejuvenating dead lithium in battery materials

Nature Reviews Chemistry volume 9, pages 553–568 (2025)Cite this article

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Abstract

Lithium and other alkali-metal-based batteries are promising candidates for next-generation energy-storage technologies. However, such batteries suffer from limited lifespans caused by the continuous inactivation of their electrodes during operation and even storage, creating inactivated or ‘dead’ Li, which is a combination of electrically insulated metallic Li and solid–electrolyte interphases (SEIs). Numerous efforts have been devoted to uncovering the origins of this inactivation and how it could be mitigated. Given that dead Li cannot be entirely prevented, rejuvenating it has emerged as a solution for prolonging the lifetimes of batteries and energy-storage systems. Here, we discuss the origins of dead Li and its effects on battery operations. We summarize the emerging challenges related to dead Li, such as SEI dissolution, dead Li migration and Li corrosion. We evaluate the limitations of the present strategies devoted to reducing the formation of dead Li, and how to recover and rejuvenate dead Li through redox chemistry and electrochemical protocols. We conclude with development opportunities in operando diagnoses and the rejuvenation of other inactivated electrode materials beyond Li chemistry in cells and large-scale systems already on the market.

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Fig. 1: The nature and influence of dead Li on batteries.
Fig. 2: Emerging challenges triggered dead Li issues.
Fig. 3: Inhibition solutions to dead Li.
Fig. 4: Capacity loss and recovery in Li-ion batteries.
Fig. 5: Rejuvenating strategies for taming dead Li and beyond.
Fig. 6: The future focus of research on inactivated electrode materials.

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Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the funding support of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant 52225208 to X.T.; grant 22209032 to O.S.; grants 52103342 and 22479134 to C.J.), Natural Science Foundation of Zhejiang Province (grant LY24B030008 to O.S.), and Fundamental Research Funds for the Provincial Universities of Zhejiang (grant GK249909299001-019 to O.S.).

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  1. These authors contributed equally: Chengbin Jin, Ouwei Sheng.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. College of Materials and Chemistry, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, China

    Chengbin Jin, Guoying Wei, Hongyan Li & Qingyue Han

  2. Institute of Advanced Magnetic Materials, College of Materials and Environmental Engineering, Hangzhou Dianzi University, Hangzhou, China

    Ouwei Sheng

  3. Beijing Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Reaction Engineering and Technology, Department of Chemical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China

    Qiang Zhang

  4. College of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China

    Xinyong Tao

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C.J. and O.S. conceived the idea, wrote the draft, and contributed equally to this work. All the authors edited and revised the manuscript.

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Jin, C., Sheng, O., Wei, G. et al. Inhibiting and rejuvenating dead lithium in battery materials. Nat Rev Chem 9, 553–568 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41570-025-00722-6

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