Extended Data Fig. 3: Sensor resilience to adverse conditions, off-axis deformations, strain rate and textile coupling.

a, Photograph of the car used in the sensor resilience demonstration (Honda HR-V Henna), mass approximately 1,450 kg. b, Experimental setup for demonstration of robustness. The inset shows a close-up of the sensor with wiring and adhesive covering to prevent wire breakage (scale bar, 20 mm). c, Results of high loads (applied normal to the sensor surface, as indicated in the inset above) on the sensor transient. The sensor is functional throughout the test and qualitative behaviour is retained. d, The effect of temperature and humidity on sensor output (the inset shows a diagram of the sensor during the experiment). e, The effect of strain rate on the sensor transient (arrows indicate loading and unloading portions of the curve). f, The effect of coupling a sensor in series with a relatively stiff textile (knitted textile, stiffness 7.5 × 10⁻² N mm⁻¹) and a relatively low stiffness textile (mesh textile, 2 × 10⁻² N mm⁻¹). The inset shows the sensor coupling to textiles of length 100 mm, in addition to a sensor with no textile coupling (provided for comparison) (the coloured dots indicate which plot line corresponds to which sensor in the inset). g, Plot showing low sensitivity of the sensor response to off-axis deformations about non-principal axes. The insets show screen captures of experimental footage showing deformations applied to the sensor.