Extended Data Fig. 5: SEM images of various structures printed by 2D and 3D nanostage motion.

a, 3D zigzag-shaped structures. After initial deposition for 600 s (with this position defined as the origin of the coordinates of the nanostage movement), the piezoelectric nanostage was moved to the left by 1 μm along the x axis at 4.2 nm s⁻¹. Then, it was moved past the origin and further to the right by 1 μm along the x axis at 4.2 nm s⁻¹. Finally, it was moved back to the origin at 4.2 nm s⁻¹. The initial distance between the mask and the substrate was 7 μm. After stationary deposition (600 s), the nanostage was moved down 2 μm at 2.1 nm s⁻¹. b, 3D stair-like structures. After initial deposition for 600 s, the nanostage was jumped to 1 μm from the initial point for 7.5 min of deposition. These two steps were then repeated a second time. The initial distance between the mask and the substrate was 6 μm. After stationary deposition (600 s), the nanostage was moved down 1.5 μm at 1.3 nm s⁻¹. c, d, Top-view (c) and tilt-view (d) SEM images of 3D helices rotated 180° (R_s = 1 μm, ω = 4π h⁻¹, L_p = 1.12 μm). The initial distance between the mask and the substrate was 6 μm. The nanostage was then moved down 1.5 μm at 1.7 nm s⁻¹. e, f, Top-view (e) and tilt-view (f) SEM images of 3D helices rotated 720°. After initial deposition for 180 s, the nanostage was rotated 720° (R_s = 250 nm, ω = 8π h⁻¹, L_p = 430 nm). The initial distance between the mask and the substrate was 2 μm. The nanostage was then moved down 6.3 μm at 3.5 nm s⁻¹. g, h, Top-view (g) and tilt-view (h) SEM images of 3D helices rotated 360° anticlockwise and then 360° clockwise, after initial deposition for 240 s (R_s = 250 nm, ω = 8π h⁻¹, L_p = 320 nm). The initial distance between the mask and the substrate was 2 μm. The nanostage was then moved down 6.3 μm at 3.5 nm s⁻¹.