Extended Data Fig. 3: Social complexity before and after the appearance of moralizing gods.

Dots represent mean social complexity as calculated by Whitehouse, et al.¹ (a combination of population and territory size, infrastructure, hierarchy, and other factors, standardized between 0 and 1) collapsed across natural geographical area. Data are mean ± s.e.m. The shading of lines connecting the dots in a reflects the weight that the difference (d1,..., d7; on d1 and d2 are shown) between the social complexity at time point n and time point 0 in the t-test analysis performed by Whitehouse, et al.¹ (that is, differences in social complexity are highest around time 0, hence driving the forward bias). Note that the increase in social complexity from time point −100 to 0 is coded as pre-moralizing gods, while the complexity often arrives via conquest or mission together with moralizing gods. a, The ‘first appearance’ of moralizing gods (MGs) in the archaeo-historical records follows a sharp increase (39%) in social complexity in the 12 geographical areas. b, The sharp increase in social complexity just before the appearance of moralizing gods is partially caused by ascribing properties of conquerors to the conquered regions in the Deccan, Kachi Plain and Sogdiana regions. c, Similarly, regions receiving moralizing gods via mission (Kansai, Niger Inland Delta and Orkhon Valley) experience a sharp increase in social complexity. d, The remaining six natural geographical areas where moralizing gods were not first recorded through conquest by a larger empire or through mission show a steady rise in social complexity.