Extended Data Fig. 8: Inflation of univariate BWAS (brain-wide association studies) effect sizes (top 1% largest) by imaging modality and behavioral phenotype.

Better out-of-sample replication is indexed by a smaller difference between the discovery and replication datasets effect sizes (right side of histogram). Negative values indicate that an association was inflated in the discovery dataset, relative to what was observed in the replication dataset. Out-of-sample reductions in effect sizes greater than 100% reflect sign errors. The leftward shift of cortical thickness relative to resting-state functional connectivity (RSFC), and for psychopathology relative to cognitive ability indicates worse univariate BWAS reproducibility.