Fig. 6: Representation of feedback.

See also Extended Data Figs. 5, 7 and 14 and data in the IBL Brain Atlas (https://atlas.internationalbrainlab.org/?alias=bwm_feedback). Figure parts and statistics are as described in Fig. 4. The analysed feedback interval is 0–200 ms following feedback onset. a, Decoding. Null-corrected median balanced accuracy. b, Single-cell statistics. Fraction of neurons modulated by feedback compared with activity during baseline (−200 to 0 ms aligned to the stimulus onset). Mann–Whitney and condition combined Mann–Whitney tests at P < 0.001 and P < 0.05, respectively. Significance was based on the binomial distribution of false positive-events and FDR_0.01. c, Population trajectory distance. Time-resolved maximum Euclidean distance (d_max in spikes per s for dimension = number of cells per region, log₁₀) between trajectories for correct versus incorrect choices. Significance is relative to a shuffle control and FDR_0.01. d, Population trajectory latency. First time crossing 70% of the d_max for significant regions. e, Encoding. Mean absolute difference ∣ΔR²∣ in improvements from 400-ms causal kernels for correct and incorrect feedback aligned to the feedback time. f, Effect significance (grey, not significant; a–c) and size (by darkness; a–c,e). g, Spike raster for an example IRN neuron (Supplementary Table 3). Trials per condition are shown in temporal order, with every third trial shown. h, Top, PETHs (shading indicates  ±1 s.e.m.) aligned to first wheel-movement time on correct (blue) and incorrect (red) trials and the full encoding model prediction for an example neuron in g. Bottom, the same PETHs but for predictions from a model that omitted correct and incorrect feedback regressors. i, Decoded probability of reward receipt coloured by true feedback from 39 neurons in the IRN (Supplementary Table 3). j, Trial-averaged population trajectories from incorrect and correct trial-averaged activity across the IRN in three PCA dimensions. Dots, single time bins; darker colours indicate later times. The oscillation of the blue trajectory correlated with licking. Grey (control) pseudo-trajectories from averaging randomized trials, with shuffling choice types within classes of stimulus side and block. k, Trajectory distance between correct and incorrect trials in the IRN. Grey, pseudo-trajectory distances. l, Trajectory distances across (with neuron numbers indicated) regions showing early response in, for example, auditory areas and prolonged feedback type modulation with time in others. The IC relays auditory signals, which explains the peaks at onset (0.5 s), when the noise burst starts and ends on incorrect trials. m, Maximal population trajectory distance and modulation latency (diamonds, significant regions; dots, not significant regions). Extended Data Figure 10c,f,i shows a longer time window and more neurons.