Fig. 1

Research framework. R², determination coefficient; MLR, multiple linear regression. N/A (not applicable) indicates that the RFM could not be transferred to the specific meteorological stations. NEE-RS: net ecosystem carbon dioxide exchange (NEE) based on the RFM with remote sensing (RS); WF-RS: water flux (WF) based on the RFM with RS; these explain the fact that the RS variables were used in the RFM construction. NEE-WRS: NEE based on the RFM without RS; WF-WRS: WF based on the RFM without RS; these demonstrate that the RS variables were not applied in the RFM construction. RS variables include the fraction of the photosynthetically active radiation, enhanced vegetation index, land surface water index and surface reflectance for the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer bands 1–7.