Table 4 Summary of available environmental proxies for the studied sites, including references for the information provided. Dashes denote levels where datasets are missing.
Broad cultural attribution | Temporal span (Ka uncal BP) | Site | Level | Pollen | Sediment interpretations | Macrofauna | Microfauna |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gravettian | 28 | Bolinkoba | VI/F | — | — | — | — |
Amalda | VI | Pinus accounts for around 10% of pollen, with Betula present. Poaceae/Graminae grasses are common (although varying between 5-40% in samples), and Anthemidae and Cichorieae are represented. More temperate Corylus accounts for 15–20% of pollen76. | Cool/wet environment137 | Total ungulate NISP = 3501, chamois 79%, red deer 8%, spanish ibex 7%, bos/bison 3%, and horse 3%. Presence of cool indicator species reindeer and arctic fox138 | Total NISP = 490, dominance of Microtus arvalis-agrestis (74%). Cold adapted Microtus oeconomus present in smaller numbers than previously seen in the sequence (7%), and presence of P. lenki (>1%). Pitymys sp. (5%). Increased frequency of species that thrive in moist/temperate conditions including Sorex araneus (7%), A. terrestris (5%), Talpa europea and N. fodiens also present139 | ||
31–29 | Aitzbitarte III | IV | Low percentage of tree pollen 2.5% (Pinus declines slightly and Cupressaceae increases). Poaceae declines (9.5%) and an increase in the composites is seen (except Cedrela tubiflora). Spores decrease (3.5%)44 | Slightly warmer climate compared to previous parts of the sequence140. | Total ungulate NISP = 354, bos/bison 52%, chamois 25%, red deer 12%, horse, roe deer and reindeer all present43 | Total NISP = 1471, Microtus arvalis-agrestis common (47%), and Microtus oeconomus well represented (17%). Sorex araneus (12%), Pitymys sp. (5%) and Talpa sp. (12%), also identified, alongside A. terrestris (4%). Presence of Neomys sp. and Sorex minutus79. | |
Va | Tree cover remains stable. Steppic vegetation including grasses Poaceae/Gramineae (25%), umbelliferous plants (6%) and rosaceae (2%) present. Cedrela tubiflora and Compositae liguliflor (31%) common as seen previously. Spores up to 8%44 | Conditions expressed were more severe79 | Total ungulate NISP = 211, bos/bison 49%, red deer 25%, chamois 20%, roe deer and reindeer also present43 | Total NISP = 1155, Microtus arvalis-agrestis common (51%) and Microtus oeconomus well represented (17%). Sorex araneus (15%), Pitymys sp. (7%) and Talpa sp. (6%) also identified, alongside A. terrestris (3%). Sorex minutus and Apodemus sp. present79. | |||
Vb upper | Slight recovery in tree cover (up to 2.5%- Pinus and Cupressaceae) Steppic vegetation dominates, Poaceae starts to increase. Centaurea declines to 8%, Compositae liguliflor accounts for 41% pollen. Level generally similar in composition to levels Vb Central and Va44 | Slightly cooler conditions were experienced at this time140 | Total ungulate NISP = 127, red deer 51%, bos/bison 42%, chamois 7%43 | — | |||
Aurignacian | 31 | Ekain | IXb | — | — | Total ungulate NISP = 398, more temperate suite of fauna: chamois 65%, bos/bison 19%, red deer 15%72 | Total NISP = 31, Arvicola most common species (NISP = 27), Pliomys lenki and Pitymys sp. also present73 |
Aitzbitarte III | Vb Central | 1.6% tree cover, pine and juniper. Steppic vegetation dominates with of Centaurea common (32–35%) and Compositae, in addition to Cedrela tubiflora and Compositae liguliflor found in variable proportions within the samples44 | Possibly slightly cooler conditions experienced | Total ungulate NISP = 158, red deer 44%, bos/bison 32%, chamois 14%, horse 8%, and roe deer also present43. | Total NISP = 574, Microtus arvalis-agrestis common (51%), and Microtus oeconomus present in substantial quantities (15%). Sorex araneus (14%), Pitymys sp. (5%) and Talpa sp. (8%) also represented, alongside A. terrestris (7%)79. | ||
35–32 | Labeko Koba | IV | — | Conditions still cool, but indicate the start of a tempering environment141 | Total ungulate NISP = 237, bos/bison 68%, horse 22%, red deer 5%, chamois 3%, and reindeer present85 | Total NISP = 40. Arvicola terrestris (NISP = 38) and Talpa sp. (NISP = 2) present77. | |
V | Pollen evidence sparse. Pinus present (15%) alongside steppic vegetation, such as Cedrela tubiflora (8%), Compositae liguliflor (25%) and Poaceae/Gramineae (15%)45 | Cold conditions remaining in this level141 | Total ungulate NISP = 387, bos/bison 75%, horse 16%, red deer 7%, and chamois 2%)85 | Total NISP = 74. Arvicola terrestris most common species (NISP 67) Microtus agrestris-arvalis, Talpa sp. Glis glis and present77. | |||
VI | Climatic conditions interpreted as declining, decrease in the mid-thermophilic taxa observed including Poaceae/Gramineae (40–50%), Plantago (c. 10%), Cedrela tubiflora and Compositae liguliflor (both representing c.10% of samples taken). Low quantities of arboreal pollen, mostly Pinus (10–15%) persist45 | — | Total ungulate NISP = 275 bos/bison 64%, red deer 21%, horse 13%, and chamois present85 | Total NISP = 43. Arvicola terrestris (NISP = 37) most common, Talpa sp., Microtus agrestris-arvalis present77 | |||
Châtelperronian | 38–37 | Labeko Koba | IX Lower | Conditions fairly benign. Presence of mid-thermophilic species such as Corylus (5–7%). Increased evidence of steppic vegetation (60% in one sampled) Pinus also present (c.12–15%)45 | — | Total ungulate NISP = 1159, red deer 68%, horse 18%, bos/bison 12%, and presence of reindeer85 | Total NISP = 50. Arvicola terrestris (NISP = 40) most common. Talpa sp. Glis glis, Microtus agrestris-arvalis present77 |
Mousterian | 44–42 | Amalda | VII | Poor pollen preservation in this level, represented predominantly by Pinus (c.60%), with Cichorioideae accounting for c. 20% of total pollen and low frequencies of Chenopodiaceae76. | — | Total ungulate NISP = 856, chamois 63%, red deer 18%, bos/bison 7%, spanish ibex 7% and horse 6%138 | Total NISP = 22. Microtus arvalis- agrestis (NISP = 14) most common. Cool indicator species Pliomys lenki present in addition to A. terrestris, Apodemus sp., and Sorex139 |
>49 | Axlor | IV | — | — | Total ungulate NIS = 109 Red deer 44%, bos/bison 30%, Spanish ibex 15%, horse 7%, and chamois 4%56,142 | — | |
VI | — | — | Total ungulate NISP = 585, bos/bison 15%, spanish ibex 15%, red deer 14%, horse 6% and chamois present56,142 | — | |||
60–50 | VIII | — | — | Total ungulate NISP 163, red deer 74%, spanish ibex 14%, chamois 8%, horse 2%, and presence of bos/bison, roe deer and wild boar56,142 | — |
