Table 1 Coprolite types identified in the Denisova Cave microstratigraphic record.

CT-1

Rounded to sub-angular, with a pale yellow and homogeneous fabric (ppl), a ‘dusty’ composition, and a darker brown rim. The undifferentiated b-fabric is isotropic in xpl. Inclusions of bone and hair, and vesicles (void spaces), in these coprolites are generally small, although some contain larger (~1 mm) bone fragments. These are the most common coprolites recorded at Denisova Cave, most likely formed by hyenas based on published descriptions of this material^29,30,31.

DCM 21, 20, 19, 14.1, 12.3, 11.4, 11.2, 10, 9.3

DCE 16, 14, 11.4, 11.3

CT-2

Rounded to sub-rounded, medium to dark brown (ppl) with frequent inclusions, such as fine sand and silt grains, and hair/fur (DCM-MM2A/B; DCE-MM2B), which are isotropic in xpl. This category is the next most common recorded in the microstratigraphy and are distinctive for their very dark colouration, similar to dog coprolites found at Vanguard’s Cave, Gibraltar³². They may correlate with wolf, the remains of which have been found at Denisova Cave.

DCM 14.1, 12.3, 12.2

DCE 14, 13

CT-3

Highly weathered, dark brownish black, with frequent sand-sized grains and/or vesicles, recorded in DCE-MM2A. These are highly fragmentary and their origin is unknown.

DCE 14, 13

CT-4

Moderately weathered and cracked, bright brownish red, sub-rounded, recorded in DCM-MM2B. These have a darker brown rim, and the fabric is largely homogeneous and free of inclusions, except for some fine silt grains.

DCM 14.1, 12.3