Table 3 Main characteristics of type 1 diabetes patients and healthy children enrolled by subject origin.
Italians (n. 69) | Migrants (n. 27) | p-value | Adj p-value | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Socio-demographic factors | |||||
Age at onset | 7.85 (± 1.75) | 8.46 (± 1.04) | 0.093 | 0.1581 | |
Gender | Female | 24 (34.8%) | 4 (14.8%) | 0.079 | 0.149 |
Male | 45 (65.2%) | 23 (85.2%) | |||
Percentile BMI | 51.38 (± 32.35) | 66.46 (± 36.27) | 0.053 | 0.121 | |
BMI categories | Underweight | 1 (1.5%) | 2 (7.7%) | 0.016 | 0.091 |
Normal weight | 50 (73.5%) | 11 (42.3%) | |||
Overweight | 11 (16.2%) | 7 (26.9%) | |||
Obese | 6 (8.8%) | 6 (23.1%) | |||
Residency (urban) | 43 (63.2%) | 23 (85.2%) | 0.048 | 0.121 | |
Sport activity | 50 (73.5%) | 14 (51.8%) | 0.054 | 0.121 | |
The child has siblings | 52 (76.5%) | 22 (81.5%) | 0.785 | 0.861 | |
The child does regular health check-up | 53 (77.9%) | 15 (55.6%) | 0.043 | 0.121 | |
The child used antibiotics in the first two years of life | 46 (67.6%) | 17 (63.0%) | 0.810 | 0.861 | |
Breast feeding | 57 (83.8%) | 24 (88.9%) | 0.750 | 0.861 | |
Weaning age (months) | 5.91 (± 2.47) | 5.76 (± 1.62) | 0.760 | 0.861 | |
Presence of pets in the house | No pets | 14 (24.6%) | 7 (28.0%) | 0.057 | 0.121 |
Dogs or cats | 24 (42.1%) | 4 (16.0%) | |||
Other pets | 19 (33.3%) | 14 (56.0%) | |||
Mother age at recruitment | 40.61 (± 4.77) | 34.18 (± 5.41) | < 0.001 | 0.017 | |
Mother education (at least high school) | 50(73.5%) | 15 (55.6%) | 0.141 | 0.218 | |
Father age at recruitment | 44.19 (± 5.99) | 40.29 (± 5.93) | 0.005 | 0.0425 | |
Father education (at least high school) | 38 (55.9%) | 17 (63.0%) | 0.646 | 0.861 | |
Important changes in the family contest in the last year | 7 (10.3%) | 3 (11.1%) | 1.000 | 1.000 | |
Nutritional anamnesis | |||||
Total caloric intake (Kcal/die) | 1760.23 (± 349.43) | 1891.48 (± 372.29) | 0.108 | 0.262 | |
Delta Kcal | -116.15 (± 346.65) | -11.11 (± 366.43) | 0.192 | 0.408 | |
Delta Kcal % | -5.20 (± 17.54) | -0.33 (± 19.06) | 0.236 | 0.446 | |
Total supply of proteins (g) | 60.53 (± 13.61) | 60.56 (± 13.91) | 0.991 | 1.000 | |
Total supply of lipids (g) | 65.40 (± 12.92) | 66.52 (± 16.08) | 0.724 | 0.879 | |
Total supply of carbohydrates (g) | 232.51 (± 58.51) | 259.70 (± 59.09) | 0.044 | 0.1496 | |
Total supply of CHO RA (g) | 71.02 (± 26.39) | 88.85 (± 28.45) | 0.0045 | 0.0255 | |
The child has access to food by himself when he/she is at home | 39 (57.4%) | 23 (85.2%) | 0.016 | 0.0544 | |
The child consumes meals alone | Always alone | 3 (4.4%) | 12 (44.4%) | < 0.001 | 0.006 |
Always with an adult | 61 (89.7%) | 16 (37.1%) | |||
Both | 4 (5.9%) | 5 (18.5%) | |||
Number of extra meals a day | 0 | 1 (1.5%) | 0 (0%) | 0.330 | 0.4675 |
1 | 2 (2.9%) | 0 (0%) | |||
2 | 36 (52.9%) | 10 (37.1%) | |||
3 | 21 (30.9%) | 10 (37.1%) | |||
4 | 8 (11.8%) | 7 (25.8%) | |||
The child consumes meals while watching TV | 43 (63.2%) | 22 (81.5%) | 0.094 | 0.262 | |
The child consumes sweets more than three times a week | 39 (57.3%) | 16 (59.3%) | 1.000 | 1.000 | |
Child family consumes meals all together | 62 (91.2%) | 22 (81.5%) | 0.284 | 0.4675 | |
Family talks during the meal | 61 (89.7%) | 22 (81.5%) | 0.312 | 0.4675 | |
The child often asks for supplementary portions of food | 35 (51.5%) | 16 (59.2%) | 0.649 | 0.849 | |
The main meal of child | Lunch | 14 (20.9%) | 7 (25.9%) | 0.892 | 1.000 |
Dinner | 51 (76.1%) | 20 (74.1%) | |||
Both | 2 (2.99%) | 0 (0%) | |||
Meals | One course meals | 11 (16.2%) | 14 (51.9%) | 0.001 | 0.006 |
Not one course meals | 54 (79.4%) | 12 (44.4%) | |||
Both | 3(4.4%) | 1 (3.7%) | |||
Microbiota | |||||
Akkermansia muciniphila (Log gene copies/g stool) | 6.21 (± 1.29) | 6.66 (± 1.44) | 0.1475 | 0.228 | |
Bacteroides spp. (Log gene copies/g stool) | 8.56 (± 0.91) | 9.08 (± 0.74) | 0.0092 | 0.060 | |
Bacteroidetes (Log gene copies/g stool) | 8.38 (± 1.31) | 8.81 (± 0.83) | 0.124 | 0.228 | |
Total bacteria Probe (Log gene copies/g stool) | 9.48 (± 0.96) | 9.96 (± 0.74) | 0.019 | 0.062 | |
Total bacteria SYBR (Log gene copies/g stool) | 9.95 (± 0.63) | 10.27 (± 0.63) | 0.025 | 0.065 | |
Firmicutes (Log gene copies/g stool) | 10.38 (± 0.77) | 10.59 (± 0.87) | 0.259 | 0.306 | |
Bifidobacterium spp. (Log gene copies/g stool) | 6.89 (± 1.16) | 7.02 (± 0.97) | 0.597 | 0.597 | |
Methanobrevibacter smithii 16S (Log gene copies/g stool) | 5.24 (± 1.22) | 6.15 (± 1.74) | 0.004 | 0.052 | |
Methanobrevibacter smithii Nihf (Log gene copies/g stool) | 5.16 (± 1.05) | 5.83 (± 1.53) | 0.0151 | 0.062 | |
Simpson index | 0.11 (± 0.04) | 0.10 (± 0.05) | 0.1580 | 0.228 | |
Shannon index | 2.45 (± 0.29) | 2.58 (± 0.31) | 0.0402 | 0.087 | |
Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio | 1.29 (± 0.37) | 1.22 (± 0.17) | 0.3224 | 0.349 | |
Margalef index | 2.53 (± 0.68) | 2.72 (± 0.65) | 0.2145 | 0.279 | |
