Table 1 Demographic, sample, anticholinergic medication and cognitive outcome characteristics for included studies within meta-analysis for cognitive outcomes on and off anticholinergic medication.
Author | Year | Country | Design | Sample | Anticholinergic medication | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N (M/F) | Age in years* | Diagnoses | Name | Potency | Class/function | Length of administration | Medication duration | Cognitive domain(s) | ||||
Aldenkamp et al.43 | 1993 | Sweden | NRCT (Within) | 83 (47/36) | 12.8 (2.4) | Epilepsy | Carbamazepine | Low | Antiepileptic | Long | > 1 year | Att., PM |
Aman et al.44 | 2008 | USA | RCT (Between**) | 38 (29/9) | 9.4 (3.0) | Autism + Severe behavioural disturbance | Risperidone | Low | Antipsychotic | Acute, Long | 4 weeks, 8 weeks | Att., CF + R, Mem., Perc., PM, |
Aman et al.45 | 2009 | USA | RCT (Crossover) | 16 (14/2) | 8.6 (2.6) | DBD/ADHD/High-functioning autism | Risperidone | Low | Antipsychotic | Acute | 2 weeks | Att., PM |
Barrickman et al.46 | 1991 | USA | NRCT (Within) | 19 (16/3) | 11.0 (2.3) | ADHD | Fluoxetine | Low | Antidepressant | Long | 6 weeks | Att., EF, Int |
Beers et al.37 | 2005 | USA | RCT (Between**) | 13 | 11.9 (3.0) | TBI | Amantadine | Low | Antiparkinsonian | Long | 12 weeks | Att., CF + R, EF |
Bender and Milgrom47 | 2004 | USA | RCT (Between) | 60 | [8–17] | SAR | Loratadine | Low | Respiratory | Acute | 2 weeks | Att., Mem |
Bender et al.48 | 1991 | USA | NRCT (Between) | 63 | 11.7 (2.1) | Asthma | Theophylline | Low | Respiratory | Acute | 1 week, 1 month, 3 months, 6 months | Att |
Carlson et al.49 | 1992 | USA | NRCT (Crossover) | 11 (8/3) | 8.7 (2.4) | CD with manic symptoms/CD with family BPD history/Aggressive behaviour | Lithium | Low | Antipsychotic | Acute, Long | 4 weeks, 8 weeks | Att., EF + R, Mem |
Chen et al.50 | 2001 | Taiwan | NRCT (Within) | 25 (13/12) | 11.2 (2.0) | Epilepsy | Carbamazepine | Low | Antiepileptic | Long | > 1 year | Int |
de Graaf et al.51 | 2011 | Netherlands | RCT (Between) | 90 (51/39) | < 3d at exposure; 5 at follow up | Pain | Morphine | Low | Opioid analgesic | History | NR | Int., PM |
de Graaf et al.52 | 2013 | Netherlands | RCT (Between) | 89 (56/33) | < 3d at exposure; 8 – 9 at follow-up | Pain | Morphine | Low | Opioid analgesic | History | NR | Att., CF + R, EF, Int., PM |
Donati et al.53 | 2007 | Europe (7 countries) | RCT (Within) | 83 (37/46) | 10 [6–16] | Partial seizures | Oxcarbazepine, Carbamazepine | Low | Antiepileptic | Long | 6 months | Att., Mem, Perc., PM |
Erickson et al.54 | 1984 | USA | RCT (Within) | 11 | 14.2 (12.9–18.6) | Schizophrenia/Schizophreniform disorder | Thioridazine, Thiothixene | High | Antipsychotic | Long | 35 days | Att |
Eun et al.55 | 2012a | South Korea | RCT (Within) | 41 (24/17) | 8.3 (2.1) | Epilepsy | Carbamazepine | Low | Antiepileptic | Long | 32 weeks | Int |
Eun et al.56 | 2012b | South Korea | NRCT (Within) | 168 (98/70) | 8.4 (2.7) | Epilepsy | Oxcarbazepine | Low | Antiepileptic | Long | 26–32 weeks | Att., Int., CF + R, Lan., PM |
Farmer et al.57 | 2017 | USA | RCT (Between) | 165 (128/3) | 8.9 (2.0) | ADHD + Severe physical aggression | Risperidone | Low | Antipsychotic | Acute | 3 weeks | Att |
Ferguson et al.58 | 2012 | USA | RCT (Between) | 19 (12/7) | Neonate exposure; 6.2 (0.3) at follow-up | Pain | Morphine | Low | Opioid analgesic | History | ≤ 14 days | Att., CF + R, Int., Lan |
Forsythe et al. 59 | 1991 | UK | RCT (Within) | 14 (7/7) | 10 | Epilepsy | Carbamazepine | Low | Antiepileptic | Acute, Long | 1 month, 6 months, 12 months | Att., Mem |
Freibergs et al.60 | 1968 | Canada | RCT (Between**) | 36 (36/0) | 8.7 (6–12) | Hyperactivity | Chlorpromazine | High | Antipsychotic | Long | 74.8 days | CF + R |
Giramonti et al.61 | 2008 | USA | RCT (Crossover) | 14 (9/5) | 7.7 (2.0) | Incontinence | Oxybutynin, Tolterodine | High | Urological | Acute | 2 weeks | Att., Mem |
Gualtieri and Evans 62 | 1988 | USA | RCT (Crossover) | 9 (6/3) | 9.5 (1.3) | ADHD | Imipramine | High | Antidepressant | Acute | 2–3 days | Att., PM |
Gualtieri et al.63 | 1991 | USA | RCT (Crossover) | 12 (11/1) | [6–12] | ADHD | Desipramine | High | Antidepressant | Acute | 2–3 days | Att., Mem, PM |
Gunther et al.64 | 2006 | Germany | NRCT (Within) | 23 (21/2) | 11.9 (2.1) | ADHD + DBD | Risperidone | Low | Antipsychotic | Acute | 4 weeks | Att., EF |
Jung et al.65 | 2015 | South Korea | RCT (Within) | 40 | [4–16] | Epilepsy | Carbamazepine | Low | Antiepileptic | Long | 52 weeks | Int |
Klein66 | 1990 | USA | RCT (Within & Between) | 36 (33/3) | 8.5 (1.6) | ADHD + Hyperactivity | Thioridazine | High | Antipsychotic | Acute, Long | 4 weeks, 12 weeks | Att., CF + R, EF, Int., Lan., Mem., PM |
Kwon et al.67 | 2013 | South Korea | NRCT (Between**) | 29 (17/15) | 8.4 (2.3) | Epilepsy | Oxcarbazepine | Low | Antiepileptic | Long | 6 months | Att., CF + R, EF, Int |
O'Dougherty et al.68 | 1987 | USA | NRCT (Within) | 11 (4/7) | 9.8 (3.1) | Epilepsy | Carbamazepine | Low | Antiepileptic | Long | 3 weeks–10 months | Att., Mem, PM |
Operto et al.69 | 2020 | Italy | NRCT (Within) | 46 (16/20) | 9.8 (2.3) | Epilepsy | Oxcarbazepine, Carbamazepine | Low | Antiepileptic | Long | 9 months | Comp |
Pandina et al.70 | 2009 | Europe (6 countries), Israel, South Africa | RCT (Within & Between) | 284 (248/36) | 10.8 (2.9) | DBD | Risperidone | Low | Antipsychotic | Long | 6 weeks, 6 months | Att., Mem |
Piccinelli et al.71 | 2010 | Italy | NRCT (Within) | 43 (21/22) | 10.4 (3.1) | Epilepsy | Carbamazepine | Low | Antiepileptic | Long | 12 months | CF + R, Int |
Platt et al.72 | 1981 | USA | RCT (Between**) | 30 (28/2) | 9.0 (5.8–12.9) | CD | Haloperidol, Lithium | Low | Antipsychotic | Acute | 4 weeks | Att., EF |
Platt et al.73 | 1984 | USA | RCT (Between**) | 61 (57/4) | 9.0 (5.2–12.9) | CD | Haloperidol, Lithium | Low | Antipsychotic | Acute | 4 weeks | Att., EF |
Rappaport et al.74 | 1989 | USA | RCT (Crossover) | 17 (11/6) | [6–12] | Asthma | Theophylline | Low | Respiratory | Acute | 3.5 days | Att., EF, Mem., PM |
Robles et al.75 | 2011 | Spain | RCT (Within) | 49 (38/11) | 15.9 (1.4) | Psychosis | Quetiapine, Olanzapine | Low | Antipsychotic | Long | 6 months | Att., CF + R, Comp., EF, Mem., Perc., PM |
Schlieper et al.76 | 1991 | Canada | RCT (Crossover) | 31 (21/10) | 9.8 (1.6) | Asthma | Theophylline | Low | Respiratory | Acute | 10 days | Att., EF Mem |
Seidel and Mitchell77 | 1999 | USA | NRCT (Crossover) | 10 (6/4) | 9.7 (2.0) | Epilepsy | Carbamazepine | Low | Antiepileptic | Long | 2.2 months–2.1 years | Att., CF + R, Int., Lan., Mem., PM |
Shehab et al.78 | 2016 | Lebanon | NRCT (Within) | 24 (8/16) | 14.8 (1.6) | MDD | Fluoxetine | Low | Antidepressant | Long | 6 weeks, 12 weeks | Att., EF |
Sommer et al.79 | 2005 | USA | NRCT (Between**) | 25 (11/14) | 7.2 (1.8) | Incontinence | Oxybutynin | High | Urological | Acute | 4 weeks | Att., Mem |
Stevenson et al.80 | 2002 | Europe (12 countries), Brazil, Canada | RCT (Between) | 165 | 2.92 | Dermatitis | Cetrizine | Low | Respiratory | Long | 8 weeks | Comp |
Tonnby et al.81 | 1994 | Sweden | NRCT (Within) | 100 (56/44) | 12.5 (2.1) | Epilepsy | Carbamazepine | Low | Antiepileptic | Long | Approx. 3.7 years | Att., Mem., PM |
Troost et al.82 | 2006 | Netherlands | RCT (Within) | 24 (22/2) | 9.3 (2.6) | PDD | Risperidone | Low | Antipsychotic | Acute, Long | 4 weeks, 8 weeks, 24 weeks | Att |
Tzitiridou et al.83 | 2005 | Greece | NRCT (Within) | 70 (45/25) | 8.4 (1.2) | Epilepsy | Oxcarbazepine | Low | Antiepileptic | Long | 18 months | Att, CF + R, Lan., PM |
Werry et al.84 | 1975 | New Zealand | RCT (Crossover) | 21 (21/0) | 8.7 (1.7) | Incontinence | Imipramine | High | Antidepressant | Acute | 3 weeks | Att |
Wilson and Staton85 | 1984 | USA | NRCT (Within) | 75 (55/20) | 10.8 (5.5–16.0) | MDD | Amitriptyline, Imipramine | High | Antidepressant | Long | > 3 months | Att., CF + R, EF, Int., Lan., PM |
Yepes et al.86 | 1977 | USA | RCT (Crossover) | 22 (21/1) | 9.2 (7.3–12.3) | Hyperactivity/aggressive behaviour | Amitriptyline | High | Antidepressant | Acute | 2 weeks | Att., EF |
Yuan et al.87 | 2018 | China | RCT (Between**) | 124 (85/39) | 6.5 (2.0) | ID | Lithium | Low | Antipsychotic | Long | 3 months | Int |
