Figure 1
(A) Map of the Hawaiian Islands where the experimental queens were reared and mated. Two rounds of young worker larvae were separately raised as queens on varroa-free islands (Kaua‘i and Maui, respectively) then placed in nucleus hives on either the same island or a varroa-infested island (Hawai‘i and O‘ahu, respectively) for the queens to mate. (B) Principal Component 1 for queen body size—with loading variables of mean weight (mg), head width (mm), thoracic width (mm), and spermatheca diameter—were not significantly different among the queens mated on the four islands. (C) Principal Component 1 for mating quality—with loading variables of mean % sperm viability, sperm count (× 106), observed mating number, and effective paternity frequency (me)—were also not significantly different among the four populations of queens. (D) There was a significant correlation between queen stored sperm count (× 106) and managed hive number within a 4.83 km (3-mile) radius of the apiaries where the queens were mated.
