Figure 1

Kinetic, kinematic, gastrocnemius medialis fascicle and series elastic element parameters during the stance phase of running at 1 g, simulated Martian gravity and simulated Lunar gravity. Participants’ average (mean ± standard error) patterns of plantar forces (a), knee (b) and ankle (c) joint angles, and muscle‒tendon unit (d) and series elastic element (e) lengths as well as muscle fascicle lengths (f), pennation angles (g), and velocities (h) change during the stance phase of running at 1 g (black line), simulated 0.32 g (orange line), and 0.15 g (blue line). The vertical dashed lines mark the point of time at which peak series elastic element length was achieved (in % of stance) at 1 g (black), simulated 0.32 g (orange), and 0.15 g (blue). Please note that the observed hypogravity levels were slightly lower than the actual values for Martian and Lunar gravity. Means and standard errors of the 1 g condition have previously been published by Richter et al.¹⁹. n = 8 participants.