Table 2 The behavioural patterns utilised in this study grouped into categories. For the description of the behaviours, see Supplementary Information.

Activity

Standing, walking, trotting, galloping, in/out from the internal to the external area of the cage and vice-versa

Aggressive behaviour

Growling, sideways glance, raising fur, curling lip, showing teeth, dashing at bars

Displacing activities

Body shaking, scratching, muzzle licking, auto-grooming

Stereotyped or repetitive behaviour

Repetitive pacing in circles, licking or biting compulsively, catching flies, coprophagy, obsessed with an object, self-mutilation

Attention

Raising ears, looking outside, looking out carefully, looking at observer, looking at unknown people, looking at volunteer, looking at dog, raising foreleg, raising forelegs on wall

Olfactory investigation

Sniffing environment, sniffing air, sniffing observer, sniffing unknown people, sniffing volunteer, sniffing dog

Dominant behaviour

Staring, stiff body and tail still, raised tail, wagging with the tail held high, pricked-up ears, paw or a muzzle on a conspecific’s back

Submissive behaviour

Avoiding eye contact, ears down, cringing, tail between the legs, lying down on the back

Vocal communication

Barking, whining, grumbling, mumbling, howling, snorting

Affiliative behaviour

Wagging tail, offering the front paw, leaning on bars

Resting

Sitting, lying, dozing

Playing

Inviting to play, answering invitation to play