Table 3 Sampled Mountains and their special features relevant to this study.

Gunung Inas (GI)

5° 41′ N 100° 78′ E

Lowland dipterocarp, hill dipterocarp, lower montane and upper montane forests^64,65

Cameron Highlands (CH)

4° 19′ N 101° 21′ E

Cameron Highlands is much cooler compared to lowlands in Malaysia, with a mean daily minimum of 14.8 °C and a mean daily maximum of 21.1 °C, which suits temperate crops⁶⁷

Gunung Benom (GB)

3° 49′ N, 102° 5′ E

Gunung Benom has been considered a pristine zone with minimal anthropogenic interventions, with the major forest types found in this area being lowland, hill and montane forests with a unique assemblage of plant species⁶⁶

Chamah Highland (CHH)

5° 13′ N 101° 34′ E

Remote and secluded mountain found in Kelantan state with dense forest and very limited human influences³¹

Gunung Angsi (GA)

2° 69′ N 102° 05′ E

Part of Ulu Bendol Recreational Forest in Negeri Sembilan State, which consists of 143 ha of virgin forest and is surrounded by approximately 360 ha of logged forests (logging was actively carried out from 1959 until 1977)⁶⁹

Gunung Belumut (GBL)

2° 03′ N 103° 31′ E

Which is covered with highland dipterocarp forest type⁷¹

Gunung Besar Hantu (GBH)

3° 23′ N, 102° 012′ E

Which is covered by dipterocarp forest⁷⁰

Gunung Basor (GBA)

5° 36′ N 101° 48′ E

Covered with lowland dipterocarp hill forest, upper dipterocarp forest and lower montane forest, where the dipterocarp forest has been selectively logged on several occasions since the 1970s⁶⁸

Gunung Tebu (GT)

5° 34′ N 102° 33′ E

Extent of 25,529 ha in the state of Terengganu, which contains valuable timber species mainly from the families Dipterocarpaceae and Euphorbiaceae, with the former being the most dominant family³⁴