Table 2 Individual and household risk factors for individual Plasmodium spp. infection by village in 2016.

From: Investigating differences in village-level heterogeneity of malaria infection and household risk factors in Papua New Guinea

Parametric covariates

Megiar

Mirap

P. falciparum

P. vivax

P. falciparum

P. vivax

Sex–Male

1.58**

1.14

1.15

0.96

 

(1.02–2.46)

(0.72–1.82)

(0.80–1.66)

(0.65–1.41)

Bednet usage

1.07

0.50**

0.96

0.62

 

(0.58–2.00)

(0.26–0.96)

(0.45–2.08)

(0.26–1.48)

Windows

All screened

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

No windows /not screened

1.11

1.27

1.35

0.50*

 

(0.61–2.04)

(0.64–2.49)

(0.67–2.74)

(0.26–1.00)

Partly screened

0.80

1.08

0.95

0.66

 

(0.47–1.37)

(0.61–1.94)

(0.45–2.01)

(0.32–1.33)

Toilet facility

Own pit latrine/flushed toilet

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

No facility/bush/seashore

1.00

0.81

0.40**

1.84

 

(0.53–1.90)

(0.40–1.61)

(0.20–0.82)

(0.77–4.41)

Shared pit latrine/flushed toilet

0.88

0.55*

0.57

2.47

 

(0.50–1.54)

(0.29–1.04)

(0.12–2.75)

(0.44–13.80)

Drinking water source

Water tank/Piped into dwelling

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

Surface water (river, pond, etc.)

1.72*

2.10**

0.48

1.12

 

(0.88–3.37)

(1.01–4.39)

(0.15–1.55)

(0.30–4.23)

Well (open/protected; public/private)

NA

NA

0.71

1.79

   

(0.33–1.53)

(0.73–4.39)

Piped into neighbourhood/public tap

1.58

1.98*

0.98

1.17

 

(0.87–2.87)

(0.97–4.01)

(0.22–4.28)

(0.20–6.89)

Wall material

Cement/bricks/iron sheets

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

Bamboo/pitpit

2.64

5.70*

1.11

NA

 

(0.63–11.00)

(0.95–34.20)

(0.34–3.62)

 

Sago leaf stalks

2.18

3.65

1.50

NA

 

(0.53–9.02)

(0.62–21.40)

(0.48–4.71)

 

Wood/Mansonite/Fibrowood

1.60

5.14*

0.63

NA

 

(0.37–6.93)

(0.84–31.30)

(0.09–4.36)

 

Roof material

Corrugated iron

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

Thatched grass/Sago palm leaves

0.53**

0.63

1.02

0.87

 

(0.31–0.92)

(0.35–1.15)

(0.49–2.10)

(0.44–1.71)

SES index

1.03

0.97

0.84

0.92

 

(0.88–1.20)

(0.82–1.16)

(0.71–1.00)

(0.77–1.10)

  1. Adjusted odds ratios from GAM. Data in parenthesis denote 95% confidence interval.
  2. Symbols and abbreviations: *** p < 0.01; ** p < 0.05; * p < 0.1; Pf, P. falciparum; Pv, P. vivax; Ref, reference strata; NA, not applicable as characteristic was not present in village or value was not computable; SES, Socio-economic status.
  3. These odds ratios are also age-adjusted and vegetation density-adjusted. Non-parametric smooth effects of age and vegetation index are shown as graphs in Supplementary Fig. 3 and 4 respectively.
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