Table 1 Model mechanical parameters.

Particle stiffness ratio k_n/k_s

2.0

Particle friction coefficient µ

0.2

Parallel bond modulus E*/Gpa

2.0

Parallel bond stiffness ratio k_n*/k_s*

2.0

Parallel bond tensile strength σ_b/Mpa

36

Parallel bond cohesion c_b/Mpa

27

Friction angle ƒ/°

32